CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
A SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
By
Professor
California State
University, Fullerton
Note: The following
list reflects the authors personal preferences and the list should not be
considered complete or authoritative.
Last updated: September
13, 2013
Introduction
General Overviews
Data Sources
Classical Chinese
Philosophy (Pre-Qin Philosophy)
Primary Materials
Secondary Materials
Classical Confucianism
Confucius 孔子
Mencius 孟子
Xunzi 荀子
Classical Daoism
Laozi
老子
Zhuangzi, Chuang Tzu莊子
Mohism
Mozi, Mo Tzu墨子
Later Mohism
Chinese Legalism
Hanfeizi韓非子
Yijing, I Ching, The Book of Change 易經
Post-Classical Chinese
Philosophy
Neo Daoism
The Huainanzi淮南子
Wang Bi王弼
Guo Xiang郭象
Chinese Buddhism
The Consciousness-Only (Wi-Shi) School 唯識宗
The Tiantai School 天台宗
The Huayan School, the Hua-yen School 華嚴宗
The Chan School (Zen Buddhism) 禪宗
Chinese Neo-Confucianism
Song-Ming
Neo-Confucianism 宋明理學
Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤
Shao Yong邵雍
Zhang Zai張載
Cheng Hao 程顥and
Cheng Yi 程頤
Lu Xiangshan 陸象山
Zhu Xi朱熹
Wang Yangming王陽明
Wang Fuzhi王夫之
Qing Neo-Confucianism
Dai Zhen 戴震
Contemporary New
Confucianism (20th Century)
Mou Zongsan牟宗三
Tang Junyi 唐君毅
INTRODUCTION
Chinese
philosophy is built on the metaphysical assumption that qi (traditionally translated as material force or vital energy)
pervades the Universe and all things are composed of qi. This ontology leads to a conception of the world as an organic
whole, in which everything is interconnected – from nature to the human
world, from inorganic objects to sensible things. Chinese philosophers had a
purely this-worldly concern; their goal was to improve on the world given.
Originated in the primitive form of nature worship, ancient Chinese developed a
sense of admiration and affection towards the natural world around them. This
religious spirit prompted a philosophical pursuit of the order of the universe
and the ontological foundation for all existence. Ancient Chinese thinkers had
an intense desire to find the best way to make the right political decisions,
to alleviate social problems, and to properly conduct themselves.
Sociopolitical philosophy and ethics are
thus the two core areas in Chinese philosophy. At the same time, since social
structure, political polity and human conduct should all cohere with the cosmic
order, Chinese philosophy is fundamentally rooted in its cosmology. This
cosmology is manifested mostly in the philosophy of the Yijing. Chinese cosmology is built on the belief that there is a
cosmic order or cosmic pattern, which serves not only as the source for all
existence, but also as the governing rule for all cosmic developments. This pattern was commonly referred to as Dao by ancient philosophers. The pursuit of Dao would become an ultimate goal shared
by all Chinese philosophers. Under the holistic cosmic picture, the cosmic
order also governs human affairs. Consequently, Dao takes on a normative connotation: it signifies the right way for human affairs and the
normative principle for human conduct. In this sense, Dao stands for the highest moral precept for human beings. There
are three main branches in Chinese philosophy – Confucianism, Daoism and
Buddhism. Each school has its distinct answer to the quest of ultimate reality
and the roles humans should play in this world. To educate others what
constitutes virtue and to inspire others to act in accordance with Dao, was thus the self-assigned mission
for most Chinese philosophers. The Chinese publications on Chinese philosophy
are impossible to enumerate, and there are hundreds of books, not to mention
articles, on each major school or philosopher. This bibliography is primarily
of English texts, with the addition of some noteworthy Chinese texts.
GENERAL OVERVIEWS
The
first systematic introduction to Chinese philosophy is the two-volume set Fung
Yu-lan 1997, first published in the 1930s. This book is arguably the most
influential introduction to the history of Chinese philosophy, even though some of Fungs analyses are often contested by contemporary Chinese
scholars. The two-volume set has been translated into
English by Derk Bodde (Fung 1983). A condensed and
more accessible version of Fungs History
is also translated by Derk Bodde (Fung 1997). Among Chinese
scholars, Lao 2005s thee-volume (in four books) set is
widely respected and frequently consulted. A more recent and analytic
introduction to Chinese philosophy is Liu 2006. This book does not cover the
history of Chinese philosophy beyond Chinese Buddhism, however. Mou 2009 has a
more comprehensive coverage of all eras in the history of Chinese philosophy,
but at the cost of sacrificing philosophical details. For readers who cannot
read primary Chinese texts, Chan 1963 is a good source of representative selections
of Chinese philosophical works.
Chan,
Wing-tsit. (ed.) A
Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1963.
This book provides a
comprehensive coverage and fairly representative selections of all major
philosophers or philosophical schools in Chinese history. The editor provides
succinct introductions for each selection. It is a must-have sourcebook for
scholars who can read only English, even though the old-fashioned Wade-Giles
spelling of Chinese names in this book could create confusion for beginners.
Fung
Yu-lan 馮友蘭. A
History of Chinese Philosophy. Translated by Derk Bodde. 2 vols.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983.
This book provides a
comprehensive coverage of various schools in the history of Chinese philosophy.
At times, the introduction is packed with quotes, with little analysis. It is
nonetheless an authoritative introduction to this date.
Fung
Yu-lan馮友蘭. A
Short History of Chinese Philosophy. Translated by Derk Bodde. New York: Free Press, 1997.
This book is not just
an abridgement of Fung 1983. Fung wrote this short history with the aim to give
a complete picture of Chinese philosophical history in a nutshell. This book is
far more accessible and interesting than Fung 1983. Originally published in New
York: Macmillan, 1948.
Lao Ssu-Kwang勞思光,
Xinbian Zhongguo
Zhexue Shi新編中國哲學史. 3 volumes. Guangxi,
China: Guanxi shifandaxue chubanshe, 2005.
There is no English
translation of this three-volume set. This is a revised version of Laos famed History of Chinese Philosophy (Zhongguo zhexue shi 中國哲學史), originally published
in Hong Kong: Youlian chubanshe, 1968. Laos History provides detailed logical
analysis of the philosophical problems and theories of all the schools covered
in this book. It is widely referred to by Chinese scholars.
Liu,
JeeLoo. An Introduction to Chinese
Philosophy: from Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism. Malden, MA:
Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.
This book provides an up-to-date
introduction to Chinese philosophy in the analytic style. In its analysis of
primary texts, it also reflects topics and discourses on Chinese philosophy in
contemporary scholarship in English. The scope of this book covers classical
philosophical schools and four major schools in Chinese Buddhism.
Mou,
Bo. History of Chinese
Philosophy (Routledge History of World Philosophies). New York:
Routledge Publishing, 2009.
This is a collection of
essays on different philosophical schools in historical periods. Some chapters
are historical overviews instead of philosophical analysis of the philosophical
school. The book is sold at a steep price.
DATA
SOURCES
Research
on Chinese philosophy is greatly aided by the electronic rendition of major
primary texts in Chinese. For example, the Chinese Text Project **Zhongguo zhexueshu
dianzihua jihua 中國哲學書電子化計劃**
provides a comprehensive and cross-referenced classical Chinese texts. For
texts other than classical Chinese philosophy, one can find hard-to-come-by
philosophical texts in Han dynasty at **Wangshang lianghan zhexue jingdian網上兩漢哲學經典**,
in Wei-jin philosophy at **Wangshang weijin zhexue jingdian網上魏晉哲學經典**,
the most important Chinese Buddhist texts at **Wangshang suitang zhexue jingdian **, selected texts in Neo-Confucianism in the
Song-Ming Era at **Wangshang songming zhexue jingdian網上宋明哲學經典**. All these sites are created and
maintained by Hong Kong Society of Humanistic Philosophy. With some browsers,
one might need to first change the text encoding to Traditional Chinese (Big
5). There are also sites designated to Buddhist texts, such as Chinese Buddhist
Electronic Texts *Zhongguo diazi fodian 中國電子佛典[http://www.cbeta.org/index.htm]*
maintained by Chinese Buddhist Electronic Texts Association (CBETA) in Taiwan.
Since 1970s, there are rapidly increasing publications in English on various
topics in Chinese philosophy, though Confucianism remains a dominating research
interest. For instance, there are over 6,000 entries of more recent articles on
Chinese philosophy at the online research site of *PhilPapers [http://philpapers.org/browse/chinese-philosophy/]*,
and those on Confucianism take up one third.
*Zhongguo zhexueshu
dianzihua jihua中國哲學書電子化計劃[http://ctext.org/zh]*
Even though this site
is created and maintained by a PhD student of the University of Hong Kong, its
reliability seems to be generally acknowledged. At this time, the electronic
books listed in this site are more comprehensive for the classical period. For
post-classical periods, the selections include many literary works, but scanty
philosophical works, with the exception of the complete Categorized Recorded Sayings of Zhu Xi (Zhuzi Lulei朱子語類) (under Zhu Xi).
*Wangshang weijin zhexue jingdian網上兩漢哲學經典[http://www.hkshp.org/cclassic-han.html]*
This
site includes complete texts of major works by key philosophers in the Han
dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). The site is merely for
researches who need a quick look at the texts, as they
are not annotated and not searchable within the texts.
*Wangshang weijin zhexue jingdian網上魏晉哲學經典[http://www.hkshp.org/cclassic-weijin.html]*
This
site includes complete texts of major works by Neo-Daoists such as Ji Kang 嵇康and Wang Bi 王弼and some early
Chinese Buddhist texts, such as an important treatise Zhaolun
肇論by
Senzhao 僧肇. The texts, however, are tightly aligned horizontally
and not searchable.
* Wangshang suitang
zhexue jingdian網上隋唐哲學經典[http://www.hkshp.org/cclassic-suitong.html]
This
site includes major works by leaders of major Chinese Buddhist schools, such as
Zhiyi智顗, Du Shun 杜順, Xuanzang 玄奘, Zhiyan 智儼, Huineng 慧能, Fazang 法藏, etc. For
people without the means to acquire these books, the site is useful. The
arrangement of the texts makes it hard to read, however.
*Wangshang songming zhexue jingdian網上宋明哲學經典[http://www.hkshp.org/cclassic-songming.html]*
This
site includes an impressive list of major works by key Neo-Confucians, but the
arrangement of the texts renders them inaccessible. It is useful for quick
reference for those who do not have the books.
*Zhongguo diazi fodian 中國電子佛典[http://www.cbeta.org/index.htm]*
This site offers
options of online reading or downloads for all Buddhist scriptures free of
charge. The online version is not
reader-friendly, but one can download them in different formats.
*PhilPapers[http://philpapers.org/browse/chinese-philosophy/]*
This
site lists more than 6,000 contemporary research in
Chinese philosophy, mostly published in English. PhilPapers
is an interactive database managed by David Chalmers and David Bourget, and has
become an important research tool for philosophers. The
Chinese philosophy site was set up by JeeLoo Liu, with sub-categories
divided by philosophers and by topics. Many entries include a brief
abstract.
CLASSICAL
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY (PRE-QIN PHILOSOPHY)
Classical
Chinese philosophy refers to multifarious schools prospering during two
historical periods, both of which came as the result of the decline of the
golden age of the Zhou Dynasty (ca.
1122 - 256 B.C.E.). The first period is called Spring-Autumn (722 - 481
B.C.E.), and the second period is called the Warring States (480 - 222
B.C.E). The classical era ended with Qin Emperors unification of China in 333
B.C.E. During both the Spring-Autumn and the Warring States periods, the
general populace was frequently threatened with death, starvation and the
deprivation of all material possessions. Ancient Chinese philosophy was thus
developed amidst political turmoil and social instability, which greatly
threatened individuals peace and survival. Various philosophical schools
emerged with different suggestions on how one should conduct oneself in such a
sociopolitical setting as well as how rulers could aim to solve the social and
political problems. There were allegedly one hundred philosophical schools at
the time, while the most influential ones include Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism
and Legalism.
Primary Materials
A reliable sourcebook in classical Chinese
philosophy is Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2003.
Ivanhoe,
Philip, J. and Bryan W. Van Norden, eds. Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Hackett Publishing Co., 2003.
For readers interested only in classical Chinese philosophy, this
anthology is a better choice than Chans Source Book (Chan 1963, cited
under *General Overviews*). The selections in this book are comparable to, and
in some cases better than, those in Chan 1963. One clear advantage of this book
is that the rendition of Chinese names and terms are in line with the current
Pinyin system.
Secondary Materials
Among
current English publications on Chinese philosophy, works on classical Chinese
philosophy take up close to forty percent. An excellent introduction to
classical Chinese philosophy is Benjamin Schwartzs The World of Thought in
Ancient China (Schwartz 1985). A
more recent work is Van Norden 2011, which gives a more philosophical analysis
than Schwartz 1985 without being more difficult to read. It is a good
philosophical introduction to classical Chinese philosophy. Some early and
important works on classical Chinese philosophy in English include Graham 1989
and Munro 1969. Grahams studies on Chinese philosophy were influential
among early American scholars working on Chinese philosophy. Munros works on
Chines philosophy render it more accessible for contemporary readers in that he
aims to locate the universal philosophical problems in Chinese philosophy. Slingerland
2011, on the other hand, represents a new interdisciplinary approach among
contemporary scholars. A growing interest among Chinese scholars is the study
of excavated texts such as the Daodejing,
some short Confucian texts, and some parts of the Yijing. In 1970s, archaeologists uncovered some silk books (dating
back to the second century BCE) in the family tombs at Mawangdui,
in a Chinese city Changsha 長沙. Among these silk
books are an ancient medical text, some Daoist texts, and the Yijing. These texts are known as the
Silk Books or Silk Manuscripts (buoshu 帛書). In the early 1990s, ancient (dating back to
300 BCE) texts written on bamboo strips were accidentally uncovered by grave
robbers near a small village Guodian 郭店.
These bamboo strips came to be known as the Guodian
Bamboo texts (Guodian Zhujian郭店竹簡). There are many books and
articles written in Chinese on these excavated texts, but the analysis is often
more Sinological than philosophical. In English, Peerenboom
1993 reconstructs the social and political views based on the Silk Books uncovered in 1973; Holloway 2009 reconstructs the
worldviews of the time from the Guodian texts.
Csikszentmihalyi 2004 analyzes the view of virtue and moral education in some
early Confucian texts unearthed both at Mawangdui and
in Guodian. For those interested in these ancient
texts, there are some English translations of the excavated text of the Daodejing (see Henricks
2005 under *Laozi*) and of the Yijing
(See Shaughnessy 1997 under *Yijing*).
Csikszentmihalyi,
Mark. Material Virtue: Ethics and the
Body in Early China. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill Academic Pub. 2004.
The phrase material
virtue refers to virtue manifested through ones physiological changes in the
body. This book covers materials from excavated Confucian texts. It
demonstrates careful scholarship, and provides an interesting perspective on
the early Chinese thought about human morality shared by both Confucianism and
Daoism. Even with positive reviews shortly after its publication, however, this
book has not gotten sufficient attention, probably due to the high cost.
Graham,
Angus C. The Disputers of the Tao:
Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1989.
This book gives a
sophisticated but at times hard to follow analysis to several leading schools
in classical Chinese philosophy, even including the often ignored Yangists. For serious scholars in Chinese philosophy, this
book should be on the reading list.
Holloway, Kenneth. Guodian
the Newly Discovered Seeds of Chinese Religious and Political Philosophy.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
This book is based on the excavated texts discovered near Guodian. According to the author, these texts reveal a
moral politics shared by both Confucianism and Daoism in ancient times. This is
an interesting and important work for those who wish to know the origin of
Chinese philosophy.
Munro,
Donald. The Concept of Man in Early China.
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969.
This book contrasts the
Confucian concept of man with the Daoist concept of man, and illustrates their
fundamentally diverse philosophical assumptions on human nature. The language
is lucid and fluid. Even though the book is one of the earlier works on
Confucianism in English, its take on early Chinese philosophical roots will
have an enduring impact.
Peerenboom, R. P. Law and Morality in Ancient China: The Silk Manuscripts of Huang-Lao.
Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1993.
This book examines the
political view in ancient China on the basis of an excavated Daoist text Huang-Lao Boshu
discovered in 1973. It explicates the ancient Daoist view on nature as
naturalism. This book should be of particular interest to those working on
Daoism as well as on Legalism.
Puett, Michael J. To Become a God: Cosmology,
Sacrifice, and Self-Divinization in Early China. Distributed by Harvard
University Press. 2002.
This book studies the
cosmological and religious views revealed in oracle bones from early Shang
dynasty. Even though this is a topic not widely followed, this book provides a
new perspective on ancient Chinese worldview.
Schwartz,
Benjamin. The World of Thought in Ancient China, Cambridge, MA: Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 1985.
This book gives an
insightful and eloquent analysis to major schools in the classical era. It is
an excellent work in Chinese intellectual history in that it places the
philosophies in their historical contexts. It is also one of my personal favorites.
Slingerland,
Edward. Metaphor and Meaning in Early China. Dao: A Journal of Comparative
Philosophy 10 (1):1-30. 2011.
This paper received the
annual best essay award from the journal Dao
in 2012. Like the authors other
works on Chinese philosophy, this paper engages contemporary perspectives and
explores new topics in Chinese philosophy.
Van
Norden, Bryan W. Introduction to
Classical Chinese Philosophy. Hackett Publishing Co.
2011.
This introduction
explicates each philosopher or philosophical schools in terms of key issues.
Its comparative approach to Western philosophy will make readers who are
familiar with Western philosophy more at ease in learning about classical
Chinese philosophy.
CLASSICAL CONFUCIANISM
The
Chinese name for the school is Rujia, which refers to a group of intellectuals who embraced
the political ideal of sage kings – the marriage between rulership and
moral virtues. The English name for the school – Confucianism, is named
after its most important advocator – Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.). Classical
Confucianism typically refers to three philosophers: Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi
as well as the Four Books (the Analects, the Mengzi, Doctrine of the
Mean, the Great Learning) and the
Five Classics (Yijing, Records of Rites,
the Book of Odes, Annuals of Spring and Autumn, and the Classics of History). Confucianism
came about as an attempt to reconstruct social order and to restore
wide-reaching peace and harmony. The essential theme of Confucianism is moral
transformation, beginning with the individual, leading to the final
rectification of the world. Through individuals self-cultivation, the
regulation of family relationships, and the maintenance of social structure
with the function of rituals and music, Confucianism teaches the way to reach a
better world for all. An ideal political state is reached when the ruler has
achieved the ultimate goal of moral cultivation. This ideal ruler is called
the sage king. In Confucianisms conception, the proper role of government is
not just to keep its people materialistically gratified and physically secured,
but also to morally cultivate them. Confucianism, as a philosophy of moral
politics, moral families and moral self-cultivation, became the molding
ideology of Chinese culture – it dominated the thought and behavior of Chinese
intellectuals and general masses alike. Contemporary philosophical works on
Confucianism in English have been focusing on its ethical theories and
sociopolitical theory. In ethics, the primary directions of philosophical
reconstruction have been on Confucian moral self-cultivation such as Ivanhoe
2000, Confucian virtue ethics such as Van Norden 2007, and Confucian role
ethics such as Ames 2011. In political theory, a current direction is the
establishment of Confucian democracy that is viable in the contemporary world,
such as in Tan 2004. A recent controversy was stirred up by
Liu 2003 in China on whether the Confucian notion of filial piety is the
root of corruption in Chinese history. In response, many Chinese scholars
analyzed the issue of whether family members should expose one anothers
misdeeds. Under Confucianism, individuals responsibilities to family and to
the nation/society are sometimes in competition and the personal dilemma is
difficult to resolve. Finally,
Slingerland 2010 opens up a philosophical orientation to engage classical Confucian
ethics with contemporary cognitive science.
Ames,
Roger. Confucian Role Ethics: A Vocabulary. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press. 2011.
This book covers more
than the ethical dimension of Confucianism. It first sets an interpretative
context for understanding Confucianism in the philosophical background of
correlative cosmology. The treatment of Confucian ethics as role ethics – virtues are defined
in relation to our family and community roles – is gaining recognition
among contemporary Confucian scholars. This book is therefore important for
serious scholars in Confucian philosophy.
Ivanhoe,
Philip J. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation. 2nd edition. Indianapolis,
IN: Hackett, 2000.
This book gives an intelligent
and accessible overview of the Confucian theme of self-cultivation from
Confucius to later Neo-Confucians. It captures the essence of Confucianism and
provides a good guide for beginners as well as for scholars in Confucian
philosophy.
Liu,
Qingping. Filiality versus
sociality and individuality: On Confucianism as "consanguinitism.
Philosophy East and West 53 (2) 2003:234-250.
This article and its
related pieces on the comment of Confucius about the sons not reporting on the
fathers stealing a sheep and other such stories in the Mengzi stirred up a
heated debate among Chinese scholars in China on whether the Confucian family
ethics is the root of societal consanguinitism.
Slingerland,
Edward. Toward an Empirically Responsible Ethics: Cognitive Science, Virtue
Ethics, and Effortless Attention in Early Chinese Thought, in Effortless
Attention: A New Perspective in the Cognitive Science of Attention and Action,
ed. Brian Bruya, 247-286. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2010.
Slingerland is one of the
leaders in new developments of Chinese philosophy in the West. This paper is
not a historical analysis of early Chinese thought; rather, it enables Chinese
philosophy to address contemporary philosophical issues. It will be a
trend-setting paper.
Tan,
Sor-Hoon. Confucian Democracy: A Deweyan Reconstruction. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2004.
This book argues for a
model of democracy in the spirit of Confucianism and Deweys pragmatism as an
alternative to Western models of democracy. It examines such issues as social
individuals, conception of the self, the nature of harmonious community, and
Confucian positive freedom. It is a highly praised and influential work.
Van
Norden, Bryan. Virtue Ethics and Consequentialism in Early Chinese
Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
This book contrasts
Confucianism as virtue ethics with Mohism as consequentialism. The
philosophical approach adopted in this book is more in the analytic tradition,
and this makes the book more readable to those trained in analytic philosophy.
Confucius
A
different and increasingly popular Pinyin rendition of Confucius (551-479
B.C.E) is Kongzi. A major primary text is the
Analects, collections of quotes from Confucius, allegedly taken by his
students. Lau 1979 is a classic, while Slingerland 2003 is widely praised by
scholars working in this field. Classical works on Confucius include Creel 1949
and Fingarette 1972. Both works give a broad overview of Confucius in his
historical context. A more recent work is Hall and Ames 1987, which opened up
many current philosophical topics concerning Confucianism. Earlier secondary
discussions on Confucius in English focused on his notion of shu (empathetic respect for others),
such as in Allinson 1985, and a related notion of zhong (loyal to ones role), such as in Fingarette 1979 and Ivanhoe
1990. Van Norden 2002 contains scholarly works by leading figures in
Confucianism. Of late Confucian scholars such as Amy Oberding
(2011), Erin Cline (2009) and Hagop Sarkissian (2010) explore innovative and interesting topics
in the study of the Analects. Edward Slingerland (Reber &
Slingerland 2011) has been instrumental in rendering Confucian moral psychology
relevant to the contemporary discourse.
Furthermore, a new trend emerged to engage in comparative analyses on
the philosophical discourse of Confucius. Cline 2013 focuses on reconstructing
Confucian democracy with the Confucian conception of justice in comparison to
that of John Rawls. Sim 2007 and Yu 2007 are both noteworthy comparative
studies on Confucius and Aristotle.
Lau, D.
C. Confucius: The Analects. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979.
This is a classic
translation of Confucius Analects.
The selections are complete and the language is lucid and reliable. This
version is a personal favorite.
Slingerland,
Edward. Confucius: the Analects. Hackett Publishing Co. 2003.
This translation of the
Analects also includes selected
secondary commentary in the Chinese tradition. It is therefore more helpful for
scholars to understand what each comment was understood in the Chinese
tradition.
Allinson,
Robert. The Confucian Golden Rule: A Negative Formulation. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 12 (1985):
305-315.
This article provides a
good analysis of Confucius notion of shu,
and renders it as a Confucian negative Golden Rule – Do not do unto
others what you would not have wanted done onto you – in contrast with
the Christian Golden Rule: Do unto others what you would have them do unto you.
Cline, Erin M. Confucius,
Rawls, and the Sense of Justice. Fordham University Press.
2013.
This book provides an
innovative construction of a theory of justice informed by John Rawls theory
of justice and the conception of justice
in the Analects. It reflects the
authors breadth of knowledge and her insights on how to make Confucian
moral/political theory relevant to the contemporary world.
Cline, Erin. "The Way, the Right, and the Good." Journal
of Religious Ethics, 37.1: 107-129. 2009.
This paper gives a
careful analysis of the relationship between Confucian notions of the Way, the
right and the good, and argues that Confucian ethics is a form of virtue
ethics. Since virtue ethics is now
a leading trend in reconstructing Confucian moral theory, this paper should be
consulted in understanding the basis of Confucian virtue ethics.
Creel, H. G. Confucius
and the Chinese Way. New York: Harper and Row, 1960.
This slightly dated
book provides a good entry point to those who do not know much about Confucius
the man and his philosophical views.
Fingarette, Herbert. The Secular as
Sacred. New York: Harper, 1972.
This book gives
analyses of many quotes from the Analects
and places them in a coherent and intelligible thread. It gives a good overview
of Confucius philosophy, though its religious terms (the sacred, holy) could
raise some eyebrows.
Fingarette,
Herbert. Following the One Thread of the Analects.
Journal of the American Academy of
Religion, Vol. 47, No. 35 (1979): 375-405.
This article is an
early classic on the reading of the penetrating theme in the Analects.
Hall,
David and Roger Ames. Thinking Through
Confucius. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1987.
This book analyzes many
key concepts in Confucianism. Ames and Halls interpretation of Confucianism is
highly influential among contemporary scholars in English, though it is not
without controversy. For philosophers working on Confucianism, this is an
important work.
Ivanhoe,
Philip. J. Reviewing the One Thread of the Analects. Philosophy East
and West, Vol. XL, No. 1 (1990): 17-33.
This is a good article
in analyzing the core issue in the Analects.
It is a good entry piece for readers getting into the philosophy of the Analects.
Olberding, Amy. Moral Exemplars in the Analects: The Good Person is That.
Routledge. 2011.
Unlike other approaches
that analyze philosophical concepts in the Analects,
this book focuses on some key characters in the Analects and analyzes their moral traits. These characters
exemplify moral exemplars in the authors opinion and she explains why. The
beautiful writing style makes the book a pleasant read.
Reber, Rolf and Edward
Slingerland. Confucius Meets Cognition: New Answers to Old
Questions, Religion, Brain and Behaviour 1.2: 135-145 (June 2011).
As with other works by
Slingerland cited in this bibliography, this paper reconstructs Confucian moral
psychology and virtue ethics from the contemporary perspective. The central issue in this paper is the
paradox of how effortless could be achieved through effort. The paper broadens
readers understanding beyond Confucianism and is highly thought-provoking.
Sarkissian, Hagop.
Confucius and the Effortless Life of Virtue. History of Philosophy Quarterly 27 (1): 1-16. 2010.
This paper gives a
refreshing analysis of Confucius view on moral self-cultivation as
effortless. It employs experiments in contemporary moral psychology to
vindicate this effortless moral achievement. It is a fun read.
Sim,
May. Remastering
Morals with Aristotle and Confucius. Cambridge University
Press. 2007.
This book provides an excellent comparative study on Aristotle and
Confucius, and lays the foundation for reconstructing the Analects
virtue ethics. Sims
expertise in both areas also makes this book a trustworthy resource for
understanding both philosophers.
Van
Norden, Bryan W. Ed. Confucius and the
Analects: New Essays. New York: Oxford University Press. 2002.
This book is a
collection of recent essays on philosophical issues derived from the Analects, written by such leading
experts as Joel J. Kupperman, Kwong-loi Shun, Philip
J. Ivanhoe and Lisa Raphals, among others. The diverse topics are loosely
divided into two parts: Keeping Warm the Old and Appreciating the New. This
might be a book merely of scholarly interest.
Yu,
Jiyuan. The Ethics of Confucius and Aristotle: Mirrors of Virtue. Routledge, 2007.
This book compares two
virtue ethics emerging from different historical and cultural backgrounds. Yus comparative studies on Confucianism
and Greek philosophy have drawn much attention in that he has a solid knowledge
and his analyses bring new insights on both traditions. Though not everyone
agrees with his interpretation or analysis, this book should be on the reading
list for anyone interested in this comparative approach.
Mencius
In
the Chinese history, Mencius (Mengzi, 372-289 B.C.E.) is called the Second
Sage, next to Confucius, who is called the Ultimate Sage. Mencius defended the
spirit of Confucianism against the competing views such as Mohism and Yangism
during his times. The collection of Mencius sayings is entitled the Mengzi. Lau 2003 is a classic, but recent
translations (Bloom 2011, Van Norden 2008) are also noteworthy. With regard to
secondary sources, earlier scholars were the most interested in Mencius theory
of human nature, such as Lau 1953 and Graham 1967, both were influential works.
There were also many comparative studies on Mencius and Xunzis views on human
nature, the more noteworthy of which are Allison 1998 and Yu 2005. Recent philosophical interests on Mencius
focus on such issues as Mencius political view and his moral psychology.
Kwong-loi Shun and Antonio S. Cua are among the forerunners in the reconstructing
Mencius moral psychology. The more recent works by Philip J. Ivanhoe (Ivanhoe
2011, cited in the section on Wang Yangming), Edward Slingerland (Slingerland
2011) and Bongrae Seok (Seok 2008) bring in contemporary analysis that makes
Mencius moral psychology relevant to todays philosophical concerns. Flanagan & Williams 2010 brings
Mencius posits of four moral sprouts into the context of contemporary
cognitive science. There are also two notable anthologies: the collected essays
in Liu and Ivanhoe 2002 are essential in the study of Mencius; Chan 2002
expands the study on Mencius to a variety of topics.
Bloom, Irene. Mencius
(Translation from the Asian Classics). New York: Columbia University Press,
2011.
This translation will
likely replace Lau 2003 as the authoritative translation of the Mengzi. This book comes with a
helpful introduction to Mencius philosophy written by Philip J. Ivanhoe.
Lau,
D. C. Mencius (Penguin classic). New York: Penguin
Group. 2003.
Laus translations are
of high quality and accessibility because of his sensibility toward Chinese and
English readers. This book also contains some essays written by the author,
among which his discussion of Mencius method of analogy in his reasoning was
an important work that set the stage for understanding Mencius argument.
Originally published in 1970.
Van
Norden, Bryan, trans. Mengzi: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries.
Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2008.
What is different in
this book from Bloom 2011 and Lau 2003 is the addition of classical commentary
on the Mengzi by a Neo-Confucian Zhu
Xi. This book will be helpful for advanced scholars on Mencius.
Allinson,
Robert E. The Debate between Mencius and Hsn-Tzu: Contemporary Applications.
Journal of Chinese Philosophy 25 (1): 31-49. 1998.
This article gives a
detailed analysis of the different views held by Mencius and Xunzi from many
different angles. In particular, it supports Mencius view from
socio-biological considerations. It can be used as an entry piece for the
debate between Mencius and Xunzi.
Chan,
Alan K. L. Ed. Mencius: Contexts and Interpretations. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
This book is a
collection of essays that explore Mencius view from the hermeneutic approach,
examining how to best understand his philosophy in different contexts. The
selected essays cover wide-ranging topics, focusing on Mencius view of human
nature and his moral psychology. It should be an important research tool for
scholars on Mencius.
Flanagan,
Owen & Williams, Robert Anthony. What Does the Modularity of Morals Have to
Do With Ethics? Four Moral Sprouts Plus or Minus a Few. Topics in Cognitive
Science 2 (3): 430-453. 2010.
This paper, though not
specifically on Mencius, helps to bring Mencius belief in human moral senses
into contemporary moral psychology and renders it scientifically verifiable. It
should be read by anyone wishing to defend a Mencian moral psychology.
Graham,
Angus, C. The background of the Mencian theory of human nature. Originally
published in 1967. Reprinted in Idem, Studies in Chinese Philosophy and
Philosophical Literature, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990,
pp. 7–66.
This essay provides a
Sinological introduction to Mencius theory of human nature. Even though it is
an old paper, its scholarly merit cannot be denied.
Lau,
D. C. Theories of Human Nature in Mencius and Shyuntzyy. Bulletin of the
School of Oriental and African Studies 15.3 (1953): 541-565.
This essay provides a
traditional comparative study on Mencius and Xunzis
views on human nature. It provides a good introduction to the famed debate.
Liu,
Xiusheng, and Philip J. Ivanhoe. Eds. Essays on the Moral
Philosophy of Mengzi. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company,
2002.
This collection
contains many good and influential articles on Mencius by such leading scholars
on Mencius as A. C. Graham, Eric Hutton, Philip J. Ivanhoe, David Nivison, and
David Wong. This is a must-read for anyone working on Mencius.
Seok, Bongrae. Mencius's
Vertical Faculties and Moral Nativism. Asian Philosophy 18
(1): 51 – 68. 2008.
This article connects
Mencius thought to contemporary cognitive science. It offers a non-traditional reading of
Mencius view and renders it more compatible with contemporary philosophical
concerns.
Shun,
Kwong-loi. Mencius and Early Chinese Thought. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
University Press, 1997.
Shun provides a
definitive interpretation of Mencius moral philosophy. This book analyzes key
themes in the Mengzi, such as his
view of human nature, his notion of propriety and self-cultivation.
Slingerland,
Edward. Of What Use Are the Odes? Cognitive Science, Virtue Ethics,
and Early Confucian Ethics. Philosophy East & West 61.1: 80-109.
January 2011.
This paper, along with
other works by Slingerland cited in this bibliography, places ancient Chinese
thought in the contemporary intellectual context and reinvigorates its
philosophical import. The paper
analyzes Mencius speculation of human emotions (moral sprouts) and the role
emotion plays in moral cognition. It provides readers a direction for
developing Mencius moral psychology.
Yu,
Jiyuan. Human Nature and Virtue in Mencius and Xunzi: An Aristotelian
Interpretation. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 5 (1):11-30. 2005.
Yu has done substantial
comparative studies on Confucianism and Greek philosophy, and this paper is
representative of his careful scholarship and informative analysis. The
Aristotelian interpretation also helps readers gain a novel perspective on the
debate between Mencius and Xunzi.
Xunzi
Xunzi
(Hsn Tzu, 313-238 B.C.E.) has
traditionally been regarded as unorthodox Confucian by Neo-Confucians in that
he advocated human nature is bad. However,
both his view on human nature, including human emotions, desires as well as
cognitive abilities, and his moral theory, which has been characterized as
ethical naturalism, have attracted many interests among contemporary
scholars. Xunzis rational approach
to nature and his analytical style of thinking render his philosophy congenial
to modern readers. Knoblock
1988-1994 provides a scholarly respectable complete translation of Xunzis
work, and Watson 1963 offers an accessible shorter version of Xunzis basic
writings. The late Antonio S. Cua
was the first important scholar on Xunzi and his works (Cua 1985, Cua 1979, Cua
1978, Cua 1977) are widely regarded as authoritative on Xunzi in both the
English-speaking and the Chinese-speaking worlds. Goldin 1999 provides a
systematic analysis of Xunzis philosophy and any serious scholar on Xunzi
should consult this book. Kline and Ivanhoe 2000 is an essential reader on
Xunzis philosophy.
Knoblock,
John. Xunzi: A Translation and Study of
the Complete Works, 3 vols. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press,
1988-1994.
This is the most
comprehensive and scholarly translation of Xunzis entire work. For scholarly
citation, this complete translation is the most commonly adopted one.
Watson,
Burton. Hsn Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. 1996. Originally
published in 1963.
Even though this book
does not have the complete work of Xunzi, it includes Xunzis most famous
writings. The translation is reliable and accessible. Since this is a much shorter version of
Knoblock 1988-94, it can be used as an entry reading on Xunzi.
Cua,
Antonio, S. Ethical Argumentation: A Study of Hsn Tzus Moral Epistemology.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985.
This is Cuas groundbreaking
work on Xunzis moral reasoning with the analytic approach. Unfortunately, this
book is currently out of print. It
has also been translated into Chinese.
Cua,
Antonio, S. Dimensions of Li
(Propriety): Reflections on an Aspect of Hsn Tzus Ethics. Philosophy East and West 29, No. 4
(1979): 373-94.
Since
one characterizing feature of Confucianism is its emphasis on Li (rituals or propriety) and among
early Confucians, Xunzi gave the most detailed account of the functions of Li, one must study Xunzis notion of Li if one wishes to understand
Confucianism. This paper of Cua gives an authoritative account of how Li can be understood in multiple
dimensions.
Cua,
Antonio, S. The Conceptual Aspect of Hsn Tzus Philosophy of Human Nature. Philosophy East and West 27, No. 4
(1977): 373-89.
This article provides
an authoritative interpretation of Xunzis theory of human nature, linking it
with his moral concepts and his moral motivational theory. It should be read in conjunction with
Cua 1978.
Cua,
Antonio, S. The Quasi-empirical Aspect of Hsn-Tzus Philosophy of Human
Nature. Philosophy East and West 27,
No. 4 (1978): 3-19.
This
paper continues Cuas (Cua 1977) analysis of Xunzis philosophy of human nature
and develops Xunzis view into a moral motivational theory. It is an important paper for developing
Xunzis moral psychology. Cuas
analytic style of writing also makes the paper easy to follow.
Goldin,
Paul R. Rituals of the Way: The
Philosophy of Xunzi. LaSalle, IL: Open Court, 1999.
This work underscores
the significance of rituals in Xunzis philosophy, and links the function of
rituals to Dao (the Way). The book
contains extensive original quotes in Chinese, and for beginners, this style
might be intimidating.
Kline,
T.C. III, and Philip J. Ivanhoe. Eds. Virtue, Nature, and
Moral Agency in the Xunzi. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2000.
This is a collection of
essays on various aspects in Xunzis moral philosophy. Topics include Xunzis
view of human nature, virtue, human moral agency, and moral motivation. This
collection will serve as a good starting point for scholars interested in
studying the philosophical dimensions of Xunzi.
CLASSICAL DAOISM
Daoism
emerged as a form of individual deliverance from the worlds harm or
confinement. Daoism aims to bring people to a higher spiritual realm in search
of true freedom. It teaches one to forget worldly distinctions such as fame and
wealth in the pursuit of ones internal tranquility. Under Daoism, one could be
liberated from the bondage set by ones present surroundings. Two
representative works in classical Daoism are the Daodejing, a collection of eighty-one short verses, allegedly
written by an ancient recluse Laozi, and the
Zhuangzi, a collective work attributed to Zhuangzi. Works specifically
devoted to the two philosophers are listed separately under *Laozi* and *Zhuangzi, Chuang Tzu*. Key issues on
Daoism include skepticism and relativism on knowledge and morality, conception
of truth and reality, spontaneity and effortlessness, etc. Slingerland 2003 focuses on the Daoist
notion of wu-wei (translated as
effortless action) as a spiritual ideal. Moeller 2004 makes Daoism more
accessible to contemporary readers. Girardot 2009 gives an interesting analysis
of the Daoist cosmogony.
Girardot, Norman J. Myth and Meaning in Early Daoism: The Theme of Chaos (Hundun). The University of Hawaii Press. 2009.
This book takes a bold and credible approach to focus on the Daoist theme
of chaos in its cosmogony. For anyone interested in the Daoist metaphysics,
this book will offer a fresh perspective since this theme of
chaos is rarely dealt with by Daoist scholars. Even if one does not
completely accept the authors emphasis on the religious or mythical aspects of
Daoist texts, one can still gain important insights on Daoist philosophy from
this book.
Moeller, Hans-Georg. Daoism Explained: From the Dream of the Butterfly to the Fishnet
Allegory. La Salle, IL: Open Court. 2004.
This book provides a beginners guide to Daoism. Originally published in
German, the language is accessible and contemporary. By explicating the many
allegories in the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi, this book makes Daoism
less obscure.
Slingerland,
Edward. Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual
Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2003.
This book analyzes the
key Daoist concept of wu-wei in the
texts of the Analects, the Daodejing, the Zhuangzi and Xunzi. The
author claims that this notion is not just a Daoist ideal, but also a Confucian
ideal. In his other works
(Slingerland 2011, 2010, cited under classical Chinese philosophy and classical
Confucianism), the author appeals to experimental evidence in cognitive science
to support the view that morality ultimately rests in a psychological state of
effortlessness. His innovative approach has been leading new directions in the
study of ancient Daoism and Confucianism.
Laozi
A
legendary figure in Chinese history, Laozis true identity has always been
controversial. The name comes to stand for the author (or authors) of a short
book – the Daodejing. Laozi (or
the Laozi) teaches the philosophy of wuwei – non-intervention or
non-action. According to Laozi, nature has its own way and humans must not
impose human values on nature itself. Laozi also entertained speculation on the
origin of the Universe. Dao predates
Heaven and Earth; it is Nonbeing,
from which all beings emerge. Dao is
the source of all life forms as well as the totality of all existence.
Furthermore, Dao is fundamentally
resistant to our conceptual depiction, since to name it, is to confine it into
our conceptual scheme. There are hundreds of translation of the Daodejing, and here Ames and Hall 2003,
Ivanhoe 2003 are recommended. Of secondary materials,
Csikszentmihalyi & Ivanhoe 1999 contains scholarly articles on the mystic
aspect of Laozis philosophy. Moeller 2006 places this ancient text in a more
contemporary setting. Liu 2003 takes an innovative approach to compare Laozis
view to Putnams metaphysical realism. There are countless books and articles
on Laozi in Chinese, and among these Liu 2006 can be used as an authoritative
study on the five different versions of the Daodejing.
Ames,
Roger and David Hall. Dao De Jing: A Philosophical
Translation. Ballantine Books. 2003.
This book has a
detailed philosophical introduction that also gives the two authors
perspective on the interpretation of Chinese philosophy;
in particular, their theory of correlative cosmology. The translation includes
the original Chinese text and commentary. It is a useful reference for scholars
of the Daodejing, but the translation
often reflects the authors own interpretation of the Daodejing.
Ivanhoe,
Philip J. The Daodejing
of Laozi. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. 2003.
This book offers an
elegant and reliable translation of Laozis Daodejing.
It is based on the authors translation of the
Daodejing selected in the readers
edited by Ivanhoe and van Norden 2003, but it contains more notes. This is my
preferred translation.
Csikszentmihalyi,
Mark, and Philip J. Ivanhoe. Eds. Religious and
Philosophical Aspects of the Laozi. Albany: SUNY Press, 1999.
This book is a
collection of essays on diverse topics on the Daodejing, from its ontology to its
core value. Three of the articles are translated from Japanese, French and
Chinese. This book is more of scholarly interest than for the general
readership.
Liu,
JeeLoo. A Daoist Conception of Truth: Laozis Metaphysical Realism vs.
Zhuangzis Internal Realism. In Comparative Approaches to Chinese Philosophy. Edited by Bo
Mou, 278-296. Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2003.
This article gives an
analytic and comparative analysis of Laozis and
Zhuangzis metaphysics, using Hilary Putnams distinction between metaphysical
realism and internal realism as the dividing line.
Liu,
Xiaogan 劉孝敢. Laozi Gujin 老子古今. Beijing, China: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe. 2006.
This two-volume set in Chinese contrasts and analyzes five different
versions of the Laozi (Daodejing). It is a scholarly work that can be
useful for reference and citation.
Moeller,
Hans-Georg. The Philosophy of the Daodejing.
New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
This book draws out
many interesting philosophical themes derived from the authors reading of the Daodejing, often going beyond the
original scope of the ancient text to render it applicable in the contemporary
context.
Zhuangzi, Chuang Tzu
Following
Laozis skepticism of language and human conceptualization, Zhuangzi (ca.
369-286 B.C.E.) engages in the philosophical examination of the nature of
language and its correspondence with reality. The current collection of the Zhuangzi, however, is the
combination of works written by Zhuangzi and his followers. The first seven
chapters were allegedly attributed to Zhuangzi, while the remaining sections, the Outer Chapters and the Miscellaneous Chapters, were written
by later admirers of Zhuangzis thought.
Together the book is referred to as the
Zhuangzi. Watsons translation (Watson 1968)
remains a welcome classic, though scholars also like Graham 1981. A more recent
translation by Ziporyn (Ziporyn 2009) probably surpasses both. Mair 1994/1998
contains many stories from the Zhuangzi
and is suitable for casual reading. There are two excellent collections of
contemporary philosophical essays on Zhuangzi – Kjellberg and Ivanhoe
1996 and Mair 1983/2010. These two books can serve as
the first stop for beginning scholars on various issues in the Zhuangzi. Among
other current researches on the Zhuangzi,
Fraser 2011 and Wenzel 2003 are particularly noteworthy in their reconstrual of a sentimentalist theory of agency in the Zhuangzi.
Graham,
Angus, C. Chuang Tzu: The Inner Chapters, London: Allen and Unwin, 1981.
This book gives a
beautiful and well-respected translation of the first seven chapters in the Zhuangzi. Since these chapters,
standardly called inner chapters, are generally viewed as (more or less)
authentic work by Zhuangzi, this book captures the essence of Zhuangzis
philosophy. The late A. C. Graham was a highly revered expert on the Zhuangzi, and even though this
translation has a new competitor (Ziporyn 2009), some scholars might still
prefer Grahams translation.
Mair, Victor H. Wandering
on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu. Bantam Books, 1994. Reprinted by University of Hawaii Press,
1998.
This book is a
collection of parables in the Zhuangzi, which is famous for its rich
metaphors. The parables in the Zhuangzi are fanciful in appearance
but deeply philosophical in essence.
This book does readers a great service in bringing them together. The
elegant translation makes this book a pleasure to read.
Watson,
Burton. Trans. The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu, New York: Columbia
University Press, 1968.
Watsons translation
renders the witty and poetic writings collected in the Zhuangzi equally witty and poetic in English. For anyone
interested in learning more about the whole Zhuangzian
philosophy (not necessarily views embraced by Zhuangzi himself), this is a much
better choice than Graham 1981 and Watston 1996, as
the other two only contain selections and some important passages are left out.
Ziporyn,
Brook. Trans. Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings with Selections from Traditional
Commentaries. Hackett Publishing Company. 2003. Reprinted in 2009.
This selected
translation of Zhuangzi has received high acclaim. Unlike Graham 1981, this
book contains some selections from the
Outer Chapters and Miscellaneous
Chapters in addition to complete
Inner Chapters. However, many chapters are only selectively translated, and
the author has his own conception in translating some key words, such as Dao is translated as the Course.
Fraser, Chris. Emotion and Agency in the Zhuangzi. Asian Philosophy 21.1: 97–121.
2011.
The authors approach to the
Zhuangzi has been receiving a lot of attention of late. Fraser reconstructs
a philosophy of life in the Zhuangzi,
resituating it in the contemporary world. This paper gives an accessible analysis
of the theory of emotion, providing many stories from the Zhuangzi. It
further constructs a Zhuangist ontology of emotion and
shows how it could be applicable in todays context.
Kjellberg,
Paul and Philip J. Ivanhoe, eds. Essays
on Skepticism, Relativism and Ethics in the Zhuangzi. (Series in
Chinese Philosophy and Culture), Albany, NY: SUNY, 1996.
This book contains many
interesting and important essays on Zhuangzis view of the possibility of
knowledge and the value of values. It is essential for understanding Zhuangzis
philosophy.
Mair, Victor, ed. Experimental
Essays on Chuang-tzu. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1983. New edition. Three Pines Press, 2010.
This collection
includes some important essays on Zhuangzi. Of particular notice are Graham,
Angus, C. Daoist Spontaneity and the Dichotomy of Is and Ought.
3–23, which provides a sophisticated analysis of Zhuangzis view on
reason in Western terms, and Yearley, Lee, The Perfected Person in the Radical
Chuang-tzu, (125-39), which presents a controversial
reading of Zhuangzis philosophy of life. The new version in 2010 adds four more
papers by important Zhuangzi scholars and provides an even more comprehensive
study on Zhuangzi.
Wenzel, Christian. Ethics and Zhuangzi: Awareness,
Freedom, and Autonomy. Journal
of Chinese Philosophy 30.1: 115–26. 2003.
This short paper provides a sound critique of Chad Hansen controversial
but influential reading of the Zhuangzi
as relativist and skeptic (collected in Mair
1983/2010, also in his A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought). It further gives a
comprehensive analysis of many Zhuangzian notions such as the skills to
manoeuvre in the world.
MOHISM
Mohism,
led by Mozi (ca. 480 – 392? B.C.E.), advocates
loving one another equally and
benefiting one another mutually. To
promote universal love and mutual benefits, Mozi brings out the authority of
Heaven in support of his teaching. He reinstates the religious sentiment into
the rational discourse of ancient Chinese philosophy. To Mozi, having the ruler
believe in the existence of a willful Heaven and having the people believe in
the existence of formidable ghosts and spirits, would be far more beneficial to
the world than not having them possess these beliefs. Therefore, one should
promote such religious sentiments. Mozi rejects the Confucian institutions of
rites and rituals, since they are highly formalistic and impractical.
Mozi, Mo Tzu
Mohism
has frequently been associated with pragmatism or utilitarianism (Ahern 1976,
Vorenkamp 1992), and recent work on Mozi or Mohism (Fraser 2008, Robins 2008)
opens up interesting directions for further discussion. Wong 1989 is an
important work, done in the analytic style, on the contrast between
Confucianism and Mohism. Watsons translation (Watson 2003) remains to be the
only translation of Mozi, which is popular and accessible.
Watson,
Burton. Trans. Mo Tzu: Basic Writings.
New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
Originally published in
1963, this book gives the core of Mozis writings. It is a good reader for
beginners.
Ahern,
Dennis M. Is Mo Tzu A Utilitarian? Journal
of Chinese Philosophy 3 (1976): 185-93.
This
paper is one of the early works on Mozi that led the discussion on a
comparative study between Mohism and utilitarianism. It should be read in
conjunction with Vorenkamp 1992.
Fraser,
Chris. Moism and Self-Interest. Journal
of Chinese Philosophy, 35, No.3 (2008): 437–54.
Fraser
has become an expert on Mohism of late, with a new book on Mohism coming out
soon. In this paper, Fraser argues against the traditional egoistic
interpretation of the Mohist theory of human nature, and reconstructs a Mohist
moral psychology under which moral motivation goes beyond mere
self-interest. It is an essential
paper for the current development of Mohist study.
Robins,
Dan. The Moists and the Gentlemen of the World. Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 38, No. 3 (2008):
385–402.
This
paper argues against treating Mohism as primarily a philosophical discourse,
and suggests that it is fundamentally a social-political movement in its
historical context. It is a controversial thesis, and adds alternative perspective
to the study on Mohism.
Vorenkamp,
Dirck. Another Look at Utilitarianism
In Mo-Tzu's Thought. Journal of
Chinese Philosophy 19, No. 4 (1992): 423-43.
This
paper is a response to Ahern 1976 and argues that Mohism should be compared to
rule-utilitarianism, not the form of strong act-utilitarianism that Ahern
attributes to Mozi. It provides a more comprehensive understanding of Mozis
thought.
Wong,
David. Universalism versus Love with Distinctions: An Ancient Debate Revived.
Journal of Chinese Philosophy 16
(1989): 251-72.
This
paper brings the different views between Mohism and Confucianism into the
contemporary philosophical discourse. It is an excellent paper for anyone
interested in the philosophical issues involved in the ethical principle of
impartiality – not just for Mohist scholars or for scholars on Chinese
philosophy. It is highly
recommended.
Later Mohism
Works
on later Mohism (Graham 1978, Robins 2010) bring out the sophistication of
Mohist logic.
Graham,
Angus C. Later Mohist Logic, Ethics, and Science. London: School of
Oriental and African Studies, 1978.
This
is an authoritative study on Mohism, including a general introduction to the
Mohist philosophy in its historical context. However, the detailed philological
analysis of the text and its grammar makes this book difficult to digest for
beginners.
Robins,
Dan. The Later Mohists and Logic. History and Philosophy
of Logic, 31, No. 3 (2010): 247–285.
The
Mohist logic and argumentation is an understudied topic in Chinese philosophy,
which has however been gaining more attention in recent years. This paper is
one of the few recent works on the Mohist logic. Following his teacher Chad Hansens
lead, Robins argues that the later Mohists treat terms rather than sentences as
the basic linguistic unit in their argumentation. For those interested in
reconstructing Chinese philosophy of language, this paper should be consulted,
but the extensive Chinese texts cited in this paper might be uninviting to
non-Chinese readers.
CHINESE LEGALISM
Legalism
was a school of thought that focused on governance and the publicity of laws.
There were several well-known legalist politicians in ancient times, but it was
Hanfeizi, a student of Xunzi, who systematized legalism into a form of political
philosophy. Hanfeizi embraced Xunzis doctrine of the badness of human nature.
He believed that Mohism did not go far enough in its emphasis on pragmatism,
because the teaching of love is totally ineffectual. He also criticized the
Confucian model of moral politics. He argued that the rulers virtue and
kindness are not sufficient to end social unrest, while an awe-inspiring power
can prohibit violence and secure social order. In his opinion, the lofty
idealism of Confucianism is the culprit of the contemporary chaos. Only
Legalism in its pure form could end the turmoil and restore national peace and
social order. The peoples interests lie in prosperity and longevity, which can
only be obtained under a Legalist rulership. Legalism, as a philosophy of pragmatic
rulership, became the ideology embraced by Chinese emperors. It underlay the
Chinese political structure and helped maintain the political stability in
Chinese history. Cheng 1981 gives a good comparative study on Legalism and
Confucianism. Research and philosophical analysis on legalism focus on its key
figure, Hanfeizi.
Cheng,
Chung-ying. Legalism Versus Confucianism: A Philosophical Appraisal. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 8 (1981):
271-302.
This paper represents
the standard interpretation of the differences between legalism and
Confucianism. It can serve as an accessible entry into legalist philosophy.
Hanfeizi, Han Fei Tzu
Hanfeizi
(ca. 280 –233 B.C.E.) was a great synthesizer of Chinese legalism, and the
collection of his writings is called the
Hanfeizi. His thought played an
important role in shaping Chinese political climate, but as a philosophy, it
has not received sufficient attention among scholars on Chinese
philosophy. Contemporary discourse
on his view in English tends to focus on his notion of law and order, as in
Moody 1979, Wang 1977. The best, though incomplete, translation of his work is
Watson 2003.
Watson,
Burton (Trans.) Han Feizi. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2003.
Burtons translations
of classical Chinese philosophy texts are all outstanding. He received the PEN
translation prize in 1981. This is a translation of selected chapters in the Hanfeizi. For people who cannot read Chinese texts,
this translation provides the best entry to the
Hanfeizi.
Elstein, David. Han Feizi's Thought and
Republicanism. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 10 (2):167-185. 2011.
This paper takes a
novel angle in interpreting Hanfeizis philosophy as similar to the republican
political ideal of reducing the potential threat of domination. Against the traditional attribution of
amoral autocracy to Hanfeizi, this paper gives Hanfeizi a more sympathetic
reading.
Flanagan,
Owen & Jing Hu. Han Fei Zi's Philosophical
Psychology: Human Nature, Scarcity, and the Neo-Darwinian Consensus. Journal
of Chinese Philosophy 38 (2): 293-316. 2011.
Flanagans writings on
Chinese philosophy open the discourse to broader philosophical interests, with
innovative topics that are not restricted to traditional Chinese
philosophy. This paper, co-authored
with a graduate student Jing Hu, is not a paper that focuses on textual
analysis of the Hanfeizi, but one
that deals with a more general issue about human nature. It contrasts Hanfeizis self-interested
view on human nature against the Neo-Darwinian consensus on human reciprocal
altruism, and suggests that Hanfeizis perspective may be closer to realism of
human nature.
Hutton,
Eric. Han Feizi's Criticism of Confucianism and its Implications for Virtue
Ethics. Journal of Moral Philosophy 5 (3): 423-453. 2008.
This paper begins with
Hanfeizis criticisms of Confucianism and compares these criticisms to objections
raised against contemporary virtue ethics. It should be of interest not only to
readers learning about Hanfeizis view, but also to those who are developing
Confucian virtue ethics.
Moody
Jr., Peter R. The Legalism of Han Fei Tzu and Its Affinities with Modern
Political Thought. International
Philosophical Quarterly 19 (1979): 317-30.
This paper brings
Hanfeizis view into the Western philosophical context to examine its merits
and limitations. It provides a good introduction to the legalist political
thought.
Wang,
Hsiao-po. The Significance of the Concept of Fa; in Han Feis Thought
System. (Translated by L. S. Chang) Philosophy
East and West 27, No. 1 (1977): 35-52.
This paper, originally written
in Chinese by a Chinese scholar, and provides an in-depth analysis of the
concept of law in legalism. It is a solid paper that represents the traditional
analysis of Hanfeizi.
The Yijing, I Ching, the Book of Change
The
Yijing 易經, commonly translated as The Book of Change, is the single most
important work in the history of Chinese philosophy. It is not only the source
of the Chinese cosmology, but also the very foundation of the whole Chinese
culture. Both of the two leading Chinese philosophical schools, Confucianism
and Daoism, drew cosmological and moral ideas from this book. The dating of the
compilation of the Yijing is still a
controversial issue among historians; hence, we cannot safely place the whole Yijing as a Pre-Confucian or a
Post-Confucian text. However, Confucius himself alluded to the Yijing, and he was traditionally
regarded as the author of some of the earlier commentaries on the hexagrams. The
Yijing consists of sixty-four
hexagrams and the Ten Wing. The whole
book is rich in metaphysical and ethical symbolism. All affairs of the world
are supposedly represented by these hexagrams. In theory, the Yijing provides a profound cosmological
foundation for Chinese philosophy. In practice, the Yijing was commonly used in divination, a process in which advice
is given to a particular person in a particular situation on how to accomplish
success and avoid disaster. Throughout Chinese history, hundreds of scholars
wrote extensive commentaries on the Yijing,
in which they elaborated their own metaphysical views. The Yijings tremendous impact on the development of Chinese thought
cannot be underscored enough. There are many existing translations of the Yijing in English, and the most
recommendable ones are Wilhelm 1967, a clear classic and Huang 1998, a modern
and accessible translation. Shaughnessy 1997 is the translation of an excavated
text of the Yijing, dating back to
168 BCE. Secondary sources on the Yijing
focus more on its metaphysics (e.g. Cheng 1989 and Schter
2011).
Huang,
Alfred. The Complete I
Ching. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions. 1998.
Though not as thorough
as Wilhelm 1967, this book is an accessible and generally reliable translation
of the Yijing. It is good for
classroom adoption or personal browsing, in that the organization is clear and
user-friendly. It is a popular translation of the Yijing and its 10th Anniversary Edition came out in
2010.
Shaughnessy,
Edward L. I Ching
– The Classic of Changes. New York: Ballantine Books. 1997.
This book is the first
English translation of the Mawangdui texts of the Yijing, discovered in 1973. This Yijing text is probably much earlier
than the commonly circulated Yijing.
It should be a book of historical and scholarly interest.
Wilhelm,
Richard. Trans. The I Ching or Book of
Changes. Translated by Cary F. Baynes into English. Third edition.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967.
This is by far the best
translation for the Yijing. Wilhelm
gave an insightful translation and notation of the Yijing in German, and Baynes rendered it a highly readable English
text.
Chung-ying
Cheng. On Harmony as Transformation: Paradigms from the I Ching. Journal of Chinese
Philosophy 16 (1989): 125-58.
Cheng has done copies
work on the interpretation and analysis of the Yijing, and this article is one of his best work on the Yijing.
Schter, Andreas. The Yijing: Metaphysics and Physics. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38, No. 3 (2011): 412-26.
This article gives an
interesting and innovative perspective on the metaphysics in the Yijing in the context of contemporary
physics.
POST-CLASSICAL
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
Post-classical Chinese philosophy roughly refers to
philosophy after the classical period and before the flourishing of Chinese
Buddhism around the sixth and seventh centuries. The more noteworthy philosophy
of this period are Yin-Yang Confucianism in the Han
dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) and Neo-Daoism in Wei-Jin dynasties (220-589
CE). Yin-Yang Confucianism is the view that focuses on the correlation between
states of affairs in the human world and natural phenomena, and Dong Zhongshu
(179-104 BCE) was the most important philosopher in this school. There are very
few translated works or secondary materials in English on philosophy in this
period. Other than Chans Source Book
(Chan 1963, under *General Overviews*), Csikszentmihalyi 2006 is the only
reader for philosophy in the Han dynasty. Wang 2012 is a new book that
introduces the rarely discussed Yin-yang
philosophy.
Csikszentmihalyi, Mark. Trans. Readings in Han Chinese Thought. Hackett Publishing Co., 2006.
This is the only comprehensive translation of selected works by
philosophers in the Han dynasty, including Doug Zhongshu, Jia Yi, Yang Xiong, and Wang Chong, among others. The selections cover wide-ranging topics
from self-cultivation to medicine and divination. For readers who do not read
Chinese texts, this book will be an indispensible research tool.
Wang, Robin. Yinyang: The Way of
Heaven and Earth in Chinese Thought and Culture (New Approaches to Asian History).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012.
This new book is the first systematic work on the philosophy of yin yang
in Han dynasty done in English. It covers the notion of yin yang in both abstract
cosmology and practical applications such as in politics, gender relationships,
and even divination.
Neo-Daoism
In Chinese, Neo-Daoism is known as the study of the
profound (xuanxue 玄學) of the Wei-Jin dynasties (220-420). The focus of Wei-Jin philosophy was no longer cosmogony
or cosmology, but ontology. A key concept in Neo-Daoism is Laozis wu 無 – rendered
either as non-being or as nothingness in English. This philosophical concept
of wu became the major theme in the philosophical developments during the Wei-Jin
Dynasties. Two leading philosophers, He Yan (193?-249)
and Wang Bi (226-249), further developed Laozis notion of wu and established wu as
the ontological basis of all existence. The philosophical pursuit at the time
went beyond speculating on the origin of the Universe, and started
investigating the substance or the fundamental essence of all things. These
Neo-Daoists are known for their commentary of classical Daoist texts, such as
Wang Bi on Laozis Daodejing (Lynn 1999, cited under *Wang Bi*) and Guo Xiangs
annotations on the Zhuangzi.
The Huainanzi
The name refers to a compiled work under the King of
Huainan Liu An (179-122 B.C.E.). This book has controversial merit, though in
the Daoist tradition, it is commonly seen as a philosophical continuation of
classical Daoism. Major et al 2010
is the authoritative translation off the complete Huainanzi, and its abridged version (Major et al 2012) is also
available.
Major,
John S. and Sarah Queen, Andrew Meyer, Harold D. Roth (trans.) The Huainanzi: A Guide to the Theory and
Practice of Government in Early Han China (Translations from the Asian
Classics). New York: Columbia University Press. 2010.
This
book is the first complete English translation of all twenty-one chapters the Huainanzi, and it provides rich
annotations throughout. The long Introduction (pp. 1-40) provides a detailed
explanation of the historical background of Liu An as
well as introduces contemporary studies on the Huainanzi. Any serious scholar
on Daoism should read this translation to gain a better understanding of the
development of Daoism past the Daodejing
and the Zhuangzi.
Major,
John S. and Sarah Queen, Andrew Meyer, Harold D. Roth (trans.) The Essential Huainanzi: (Translations from
the Asian Classics). New York: Columbia University Press. 2012.
An alternative to the
1016-page Major et al 2010, this
abridged version (272 pages) provides an accessible access to the Huainanzi. Unless readers are doing serious research
on the Huainanzi, this version may
suffice.
Wang
Bi, Wang Pi
Wang Bi (王弼 226-249) was a leader
of the School of Nonbeing. He developed Laozis notion of wu and established wu as
the ontological basis of all existence. Wang Bi produced copious work in his
brief lifetime (he died at the age of twenty-four). His Commentary on Laozis Daodejing (Laozi Daodejin zhu l老子道德經注) and A Brief Exposition of the
Essence of Laozis Teachings (Laozi zhilue 老子指略) brought Laozis
notion of wu to a new dimension.
There are fortunately ample translations of Wang Bis works (Lynn 1994, Lynn
1999. Even though Wang Bis philosophy is widely studied in Chinese, there are
few studies of Wang Bi in English.
Chan 1991 and Wagner 2003 are the only two monographs devoted to Wang
Bi.
Lynn, Richard John. Trans. The Classic of
Changes: A New Translation of the I Ching as Interpreted by Wang Bi. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1994.
This translation of the Yijing
with Wang Bis commentary is particularly important to scholars who are
interested in Wang Bi, since Wang Bis ideas are preserved in his commentaries
alone. Lynns translation has
received high acclaims from both scholars and lay readers.
Lynn, Richard John. Trans. The Classic of the Way
and Virtue: A New Translation of the Tao-te ching of
Laozi as Interpreted by Wang Bi. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
This translation of the Daodejing
is primarily for scholars who are interested in Wang Bi, as there are many
other good and more accessible translations (e.g. Ivanhoe 2003, cited under
Laozi) of the Daodejing. For some readers, the many notes
accompanying each chapter may be a welcome feature of this book, while some
others might find them tedious.
Chan, Alan K.L. Two
Visions of the Way: A Study of the Wang Pi and the Ho-Shang Kung Commentaries
on the Lao-Tzu (SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture). Albany, NY:
SUNY Press. 1991.
The first half of t his book offers an accessible introduction to Wang Bi
the person and his philosophy. It is arguably the best guide available in
English for Wang Bi.
Wagner, Rudolph G. Language, Ontology and
Political Philosophy in China: Wang Bis Scholarly Exploration of the Dark (Xuanxue), Albany: SUNY Press, 2003.
This book focuses on Wang Bis ontology and his political philosophy. In
addition, the first part of the book also introduces the intellectual
historical background of Wang Bi.
The book is primarily for scholars working on Chinese philosophy, not an
introductory guide.
Guo Xiang
Guo Xiangs (252-312) philosophical ideas are
preserved only in his Commentary on
Zhuangzi. Guo Xiang had a keener interest in the speculative cosmogony of
being. He thinks that being cannot come from nonbeing, both because nonbeing
itself cannot produce anything and because being itself has to be
self-generated. He was known as one of the key leaders of the School of
Being. There is, unfortunately,
very little work done on Guo Xiangs philosophy in the English-speaking world,
and Ziporyn 2003 does great service in making Guo Xiangs thought accessible to
contemporary readers.
Ziporyn, Brook. The Penumbra Unbound: The
Neo-Taoist Philosophy of Guo Xiang. Albany: SUNY Press, 2003.
This is the only book-length work on Guo Xiang in English. It provides a
comparative and contemporary analysis of Guo Xiangs view based on Guos commentary on the
Zhuangzi. It has received high praises from scholars in the field. If one wishes to understand Daoism
beyond the classical period, then one should read both Chan 1991 and this book.
CHINESE
BUDDHISM
The
introduction of Indian Buddhism into Chinese philosophy was a unique as well as
a peculiar phenomenon in the history of Chinese philosophy. It was unique
because there was no other outside philosophy that has had such a tremendous
impact on the whole development of Chinese philosophy. At the same time, it was
peculiar that Indian Buddhism could have had such an impact since the whole
religious background, metaphysical assumptions, ethical beliefs, and life
concerns of the Indian culture were not only alien, but also contrary, to those
of Chinese culture heavily influenced by Confucianism. There were some philosophical affinities
between Daoism and Buddhism, however, in that the Daoists notion of Dao could be used to support the
Buddhists denunciation of the phenomenal world, and the Daoist ideal
conception of life agrees much with the Buddhists teaching of
non-attachment. As a result, the early
inception of Buddhism in China was mediated by Daoist ideas, and some early
Chinese translations of Buddhist sutras employed Daoist concepts to translate
key Buddhist terms. While Chinese
thinkers absorbed the basic tenets of Indian Buddhism, they also reinvented it
by placing different emphasis on some of the major themes. Hence, Chinese
Buddhism evolved from Indian Buddhism and gradually obtained its own
characteristics. In particular, while early Buddhism is set in a philosophical
tradition that builds on the other-worldly concern, Chinese Buddhism is based
on a philosophical tradition with a this-worldly concern. A shared pursuit
for Chinese Buddhist schools is the concern whether
everyone has the potential for Buddhahood, and how one can actually become a Buddha. This pursuit led them to the
issue of Buddha-nature, which can be viewed as a continuation of the
assertion of the goodness of human nature as seen in ancient Chinese
philosophy.
The
Consciousness-Only (Wei-Shi) School
The
great pilgrim and translator Xuanzang [Hsan Tsang 玄奘] (596-664) played a
significant role in the development of Buddhism in China. Under his
introduction, the Consciousness-Only school (the Wei-shi school 唯識宗) was founded in China. The Consciousness-Only school was
originally founded by two brothers of the Yogacara school in India: Asanga and
Vasubandhu (fourth to fifth century A.D.). The thought of the Chinese
Consciousness-Only school originated in the teachings of Vasubandhu, on whose
works Xuan-zang wrote his commentary. Xuanzangs Cheng Wei-Shi Lun
成唯識論 (A Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only) came to
represent the thought of the Chinese Consciousness-Only School. This school is
named Consciousness-Only, because it emphasizes that from time immemorial,
there has only been consciousness. The Consciousness-Only school denies the real existence of the external world.
What they mean by real existence here is independent existence. This school
claims that external objects do exist in a sense – in the sense of being
different from illusory images as in dreams and in ones imagination. But it
denies the existence of the external world in realisms sense – in the
sense of being existent independently of mental activities (perception,
cognition, intellection and consciousness) of sentient beings. It also denies
the permanence of the external world, since consciousness itself is constantly
in transformation. As the manifestation of consciousness, the world cannot
exist on its own. Everything is the outcome of the transformation of someones
consciousness. There is very little work on the Chinese Consciousness-only school in English. The translations (Wei 1973, Hamilton
1938) are hard to come by and not easy to digest. Fortunately, Lusthaus 2003
provides an excellent introduction to this school.
Wei,
Tat. trans. Cheng
Wei-Shih Lun: Doctrine of Mere-Consciousness by
[Xuan-zang]. Hong Kong: The Cheng Wei-Shih Lun
Publication Committee, 1973.
This
is an intensely rigid translation of Cheng Wei-Shi Lun. It is not for casual reading.
Hamilton,
Clarence H. trans. Vasubandhu, Wei shih er shih lun (The Treatise in Twenty Stanzas on
Representation-only). Translated from the Chinese version of [Xuan-zang].
New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society, 1938.
Hamilton
was an early expert on the Chinese consciousness-only school. This translation
is pretty accessible, with ample notations that help readers understand the
background. The Twenty Stanzas is an
elementary treatise compared to the Cheng Wei-Shi Lun, and can serve as an entry to the latter work.
Lusthaus,
Dan. Buddhist Phenomenology: A
Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Cheng Wei-Shih lun. New York: Routledge, 2003.
This book provides a
comprehensive and sophisticated understanding of this Chinese school, shedding
light on its philosophical background in India and its key concepts. It
provides an excellent introduction to the Chinese consciousness-only school in
English. First published in 2002.
The
Tiantai School
The
Tian-tai school was founded by Zhiyi (Chih-I 智顗)
(538-597). The school derived its name from the Tian-tai Mountain in China,
because Zhiyi lived and taught there for many years. The major Buddhist text
endorsed by this school is the Lotus
Sutra, short for the Sutra of the
Lotus Blossom of the Subtle Dharma (Miao-fa
lian-hua Jing 妙法蓮華經, commonly abbreviated as Fahua Jing 法華經). Zhiyis
philosophical training can be traced back to the thought of Nagarjuna,
the founder of the Indian Madhyamika School. But unlike Xuan-zangs
Consciousness-only school, the Tian-tai school is not just another extension of
an Indian Buddhist school. Zhiyi greatly modified the basic tenets of the
Madhyamika school to formulate the main tenets of
Tian-tai philosophy. The most distinctive trait of the Tian-tai worldview is
that there is only one reality, which is both the phenomenal world and nirvana.
By identifying nirvana with the phenomenal world, Tian-tai Buddhism abolishes
the polarity between the phenomenal world and ultimate reality. Among English translations, Donner &
Stevenson 1993 and Swanson 1989 are more scholarly works, and Watson 2002 is a
good one for beginners. Swanson
1989 and Ng 1993 are particularly helpful in shedding lights on the essential
teachings of the Tiantai school.
Ziporyn 2004 goes beyond explicating the texts and
brings Tian-tai philosophy to a new level.
Donner, Neal and Daniel B Stevenson, trans. The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation
of the First Chapter of Chih-is Mo-ho chih-kuan. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1993.
This is a partial translation of Zhiyis work, Moho Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 (The Great Calming and
Contemplation), which provides a detailed theory of the
method of meditation. Represents
the mature work of Zhiyi, this book can be seen as the authoritative guide
to the practice of Tiantai Buddhism.
The translation here is accompanied by ample notations.
Swanson,
Paul. Trans. Foundations of Tien-Tai
Philosophy: The Flowering of the Two Truths Theory in Chinese Buddhism.
California: Asian Humanities Press, 1989.
This book offers a reliable introduction to Tiantai philosophy and
includes a partial translation of Zhiyis Profound
Meaning of the Lotus Sutra (Fahua Xuanyi 法華玄義). The first chapter, Truth in Tien-Tai
Philosophy (pp. 1-17) is particularly helpful in illuminating the theory of
two truths in Tiantai philosophy.
The rest of the Introduction also provides background knowledge of the
school. Scholars will find the
ample notes (close to one hundred pages) helpful.
Watson, Burton. Trans. The Essential Lotus: Selections from the Lotus Sutra. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2002.
This is an accessible and elegant translation of the Lotus Sutra. It is a
welcome version for general readership.
Ng, Yu-Kwan. Tien-tai Buddhism and Early Madhyamika. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
This book provides an
excellent introduction to Tiantai Buddhism, both in terms of its historical
background and in terms of its philosophical inspirations.
Ziporyn,
Brook. Being and Ambiguity: Philosophical
Experiments with Tiantai Buddhism.
Peru, IL: Open Court Publishing. 2004.
This book takes
inspirations from Tian-tai view on being and truth to tackle various contemporary
philosophical issues. Its ambitious explorations of philosophical issues of
today and the fluid writing style have earned high acclaims from both scholars
and lay readers.
The
Huayan School, the Hua-yen School
Huayan
Buddhism derived its name from the Huayan
Sutra 華嚴經, translated as The Flower Ornament Scripture or as The Flowery Splendor Scripture. The
Huayan school, like its contemporary Tiantai school, is indisputably a Chinese
Buddhist school. The founder of the Huayan school was a Chinese monk named
Du-shun (杜順557-640). Though Huayans major sutra came from
abroad, Du-shun established Huayan Buddhism by introducing new terminology in
replacement of some key Indian notions. He introduced the term li (Principle) to stand for the ultimate
realm of reality. He uses shi (things or events) to replace the term Form (or
Color) in traditional Buddhist texts. This substitution manifests a more
intense interest in the affairs of the phenomenal world. It is generally
acknowledged that Huayan philosophy had a great impact on further developments
of Chinese philosophy. Of all the contributions that the Huayan school makes to the development of Chinese philosophy, its
notion of Principle (li) is the most
important one. When ultimate reality is defined as the Realm of Principle, it
takes on a more abstract dimension than its accompanying notions such as nirvana or substance. The ongoing pursuit of ways to analyze the relations
between Principle and Things, between Principle and Mind, etc., dominates the
next era of Chinese philosophy, namely, neo-Confucianism. In contemporary
philosophical context, what makes Huayan philosophy stand out from the other
Buddhist schools is its unique metaphysics that includes issues in event
ontology, mereology, multiple worlds, time and consciousness. For primary sources, Cleary 1993 is an
impressive translation of the massive sutra, and Clearly 1983 includes key
works in the Huayan school. Among secondary sources, Cook
1973 provides an accessible overview for beginners, while Chang 1971 gives a
more comprehensive introduction to Huayans sophisticated doctrine. Odin 1995, comparing
Huayans metaphysics with Whiteheads process metaphysics, is regarded by
Huayan scholars as an important work on Huayan philosophy. Among philosophical papers written on
Huayan Buddhism, Cook 1979 and Jones 2009 are particularly noteworthy in that
they bring Huayan philosophy into the context of contemporary metaphysics.
Cleary,
Thomas. Trans. The Flower Ornament Scripture: A Translation
of the Avatamsaka Sutra. Boston, MA: Shambhala
Publications, Inc. 1993.
This book is a highly
valuable translation of the Avatamsaka Sutra,
done with poetic language and vivid imageries. However, the size of this book is
enormous. For those interested in Huayans philosophical import, see chapters
2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 14, 20, 24, 26, 29, and 37. For those interested in Huayans
practices, chapters 8, 11, 12, 15-18, 21, 25-29, 36, and 38 are recommended.
Chapter 39, Entry into the Realm of Reality, stands on its own as an
essential introduction to Huayan Buddhism.
Cleary,
Thomas, Trans. Entry
into the Inconceivable: An Introduction to Hua-yen Buddhism. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 1983.
This book includes the
translations of Du-shuns Cessation and
Contemplation in the Five Teachings, his Contemplation of the Realm of
Reality with Cheng-guans commentary, Zhi-yans Ten Mysterious Gates of the
Unitary Vehicle, and Fa-zangs Cultivation of Contemplation of the Inner
Meaning of the Huayan: The Ending of Delusion and Return to the Source. The first part of this book gives a
condensed introduction to Huayan Buddhism.
Chang,
Garma C. C. The Buddhist Teaching of
Totality: The Philosophy of Hwa Yen Buddhism.
University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1971.
With
his knowledge of Western philosophy, the author is able to relate Huayan
Buddhism to contemporary readers in the West, though his unequivocal high
praise for Huayan Buddhism reflects more the sentiments of 20th Century
New Confucians. The introduction is
reliable and insightful. It can be used as a gateway into the sophisticated
Huayan philosophy.
Cook,
Francis H. Hua-Yen Buddhism: The Jewel
Net of Indra. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State
University Press. 1973.
This small book provides
a clear and reader-friendly introduction to Huayan philosophy. It may be easier
to read than Chang 1971, but readers interested in Huayan Buddhism should not
skip Chang 1971, as this book is a brief digest whereas the other one gives a
fuller picture.
Cook,
Francis H. Causation in the Chinese Hua-yen Tradition. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 6: 367-85. 1979.
This
article analyzes Huayans notion of causation, which is based on different
conceptions of causation from what are commonly assumed in Western philosophy
of science.
Jones, Nicholaos.
Fazang's Total Power Mereology: An Interpretive Analytic Reconstruction. Asian
Philosophy 19 (3):199-211. 2009.
This article takes the analytic approach to reconstruct Huayans metaphysics
as a form of mereology. It should
open new grounds for the continuing development of Huayan philosophy.
Odin, Steven. Process Metaphysics and Hua-Yen Buddhism; A Critical Study of
Cumulative Penetration vs. Interpenetration. India: Sri Satguru Publications. 1995.
This formerly out-of-print book, originally published by SUNY press in
1982, is again made available by an Indian press. The comparative analysis in
this book is for serious philosophers who have some background knowledge of
Huayan philosophy and Whiteheads process metaphysics, both difficult for
beginners. It is nonetheless an essential book for anyone working on Huayan
Buddhism, in that it explores fascinating metaphysical implications of Huayans
conception of time and reality.
The
Chan School (Zen Buddhism)
The
Chan School, developed in China between the sixth and the eighth century, is
generally regarded as a genuinely Chinese Buddhist school. It was later brought
to Japan and became a prominent Buddhist school in Japan. Because Chan was
first introduced to the Western world in the twentieth century through its
Japanese branch (most notably through the interpretations of a Japanese scholar
Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki), it is more commonly known in the Western world by its
Japanese pronunciation, Zen. The word chan is the Chinese translation of
the Sanskrit dhyana, which means
meditation. The essence of Chans
philosophy could be described as a philosophy of pure mind. The Chan School
preaches the retrieval of ones original mind. The passage of mind-transmission
does not rely on verbal communication. Therefore, Chan masters play down the
importance of language. As a form of philosophy, Chan is less systematic than
the other schools of Chinese Buddhism listed above. Its philosophy can be
encapsulated in a few short aphorisms, but Chan masters seldom defended or put
forward arguments for their theses. One of the most important philosophical
claims of the Chan School is that we do not need to reject the phenomenal world
totally in order to reach nirvana. Another important philosophical thesis of
the Chan School is the universality of Buddhahood, which may have been derived
from Mencius view of the goodness of human nature. Because of the popularity of Zen in the
West, there are copious works on Chan either as a general philosophy of life or
as an important philosophical tradition in China. The selected bibliography here focuses
more on the latter. Cleary 1998 is an authoritative translation of the fuller
version of Platform Sutra of the
sixth patriarch of Chan, Hui-neng (慧能638-713), while
Yampolsky 1967 is based on a shorter, possibly the earliest, version of the
Sutra unearthed at Tun-huangs cave in 1900. Blofield 1958/1994, on the other hand, provides a complete
translation of the discourse of a famous Chan master
in the Tang dynasty, Huang
Po (黄檗 ? - 855). Of secondary materials, Watts 1957 is a beginners guide, while Dumoulin
2005 is a more scholarly introduction to the history of Chan. Among early
philosophical discussions on Chan Buddhism, Cheng 1973 gives a thorough
analysis of Chans usage of language, and Zeuschner 1978 highlights Chans
philosophy of mind. Both are
important in setting the direction for Chan studies. Recent works on Chan seem to take the
comparative approach, such as comparing Chan Buddhism with Daoism,
Wittgenstein, Heideggar, or other philosophy. Wright 2000 is a philosophical treatment
of Chan that has drawn much attention from scholars in the field.
Blofield, John. The Zen Teaching of Huang-Po: On the Transmission of Mind. 1958. New York: Grove Press, 1994.
Huang Po was
influential in the later propagation of Chan Buddhism in China, and this short
book provides a comprehensive translation of his sayings and anecdotes. It
captures the eccentric pedagogy of Chan, as well as the brilliant insights and
witty spirit of Huang Po. The book has become a classic.
Cleary,
Thomas. Trans. The Sutra of Hui-neng:
Grand Master of Zen. (With Hui-nengs Commentary on the Diamond Sutra.) Boston and London:
Shambhala, 1998.
This classic
translation by Cleary is an essential reading for Chan Buddhism. In addition to an elegant transition of
the Platform Sutra, it also contains Hui-nengs commentary on the Diamond
Sutra. Both texts contain many
wonderful Chan aphorisms.
Cheng,
Chung-ying. On Zen (Chan) Language and Zen Paradoxes. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 1 (1973): 77-99.
This article gives a
comprehensive analysis of the way the Chan school uses
language for its pedagogical function. It can be read as an introduction to
Chans philosophy of language.
Dumoulin,
Heinrich. Zen Buddhism: A History, India
& China. Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, Inc. 2005.
This is the first
volume of Dumoulins two-volume history of Zen
Buddhism. This 300-page book gives
a comprehensive introduction to the Indian roots of Buddhism and the
development of Chan Buddhism in China. It should be an essential reading for
readers who are interested in knowing the origin of Chan Buddhism.
Watts,
Alan W. The Way of Zen.
New York: Vintage Books, 1957.
This is a popular
introduction to Chan Buddhism for the general reader. It briefly explains
history of Chan Buddhism and some key ideas of Chan such as emptiness as well
as its method of meditation.
Wright, Dale S. Philosophical
Meditations on Zen Buddhism (Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions). Cambridge
University Press, 2000.
This book uses Huang
Pos texts (see Blofield 1958) as the basis to engage
in a hermeneutic reconstruction of Chan Buddhism. It explains how contemporary readers can
understand the later Chans teachings.
Yampolsky,
Philip B. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth
Patriarch: The Text of the Tun-Huang Manuscript. New York: Columbia University
Press. 1967.
This translation is
based on a much shorter, albeit more ancient, version of the Platform Sutra
that was discovered in the cave library of Tun-Huang
(敦煌). It should be of scholarly interest to
compare this older version against the more popular text in Clearly 1998. The
short translation here is accompanied by a detailed, and valuable, introduction
to the Chan school by the late Dr. Yampolsky.
Zeuschner,
Robert B. The Understanding of Mind in the Northern Line of Chan. Philosophy East and West 28, No. 1
(1978): 69-79.
This article explains
the key thesis in Chan Buddhism about the pure mind. It provides a good guide
to Chans philosophy of mind.
CHINESE
NEO-CONFUCIANISM
Neo-Confucianism
typically refers to the revival of classical Confucianism developed between the
eleventh and the eighteenth century in China, spanning over four dynasties in
Chinese history: Song (960-1279), Yuan (1271-1368), Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911).
In Chinese intellectual history, neo-Confucianism is standardly divided into
two periods: Song-Ming neo-Confucianism and Qing neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism
was a new form of Confucianism that came after the dominance of Daoism and
subsequently Buddhism within Chinese intellectual circles. Neo-Confucianism
revitalized classical Confucianism and expanded the traditional philosophical discourse
to new dimensions. Neo-Confucianism invigorated the metaphysical speculation
found in classics such as the Yijing
and incorporated different concepts and perspectives from Chinese Daoism and
Buddhism into its discourse. Neo-Confucians metaphysical views lay the
foundation for their moral theories. In their various debates, Neo-Confucians
touched on the possibility of an innate moral sense and the various means of
moral knowledge. In Neo-Confucians views, morality takes its root either in
the universal goodness of human nature, or in the individuals moral reflection
and cultivation of the human mind. This debate between the School of Nature and the School
of Mind was one of the major themes in Neo-Confucianism. Finally, in
Neo-Confucianism we see a consistent effort not only to redefine a realist
worldview that affirms the world as existing independently of human conception,
but also to reassert (after Daoism and Buddhism) a humanist worldview that
places human beings at the center of meaning and values. These trends delineate
the spirit of Neo-Confucianism.
Unfortunately, in the West neo-Confucianism is far less studied than
classical Confucianism. Other than the short selective translation in the Source Book (Chan 1963, under General
Overview), there is little translation of primary texts (the ones available
will be mentioned under individual philosopher). Of secondary materials,
Makeham 2010 gives the most complete coverage of neo-Confucianism, but it is a
collection of essays by different authors. Cheng 1991 is a collection of a
seasoned scholars essays on Confucianism, and Part III is devoted to
Neo-Confucianism. Both Bol 2010 and
de Bary 1981 take the historical approach.
Bol 2010 covers the cultural and political background in which
neo-Confucianism emerged and developed, while De Bary 1981 traces the
development of neo-Confucian orthodoxy from the Yuan dynasty to Tokugawa Japan.
Liu 1998 provides a short beginners guide to neo-Confucianism in addition to
classical Confucianism.
Bol, Peter. Neo-Confucianism in
History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia
Center, 2010.
This book takes an intellectual historical
approach to Neo-Confucianism. It is useful for readers who want to know the
historical background of neo-Confucianism.
Cheng, Chung-ying. New Dimensions of Confucian and Neo-Confucian Philosophy.
Albany, NY: SUNY Press. 1991.
This book is a collection of essays by the
author, who has been plowing the field for many years and is instrumental in
promoting Chinese philosophy in the West. These essays were written over a span
of twenty years from 1965 to 1985. Part III of this book contains seven sophisticated
papers on key thinkers such as Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming. The final essay, a
comparative study on Neo-Confucianism and A. N. Whiteheads process philosophy,
led an important direction for comparative philosophy.
De Bary, William Theodore. Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart.
New York: Columbia University Press. 1981.
This book, written by a distinguished
historian de Bary, contains three essays.
The first essay explains the historical and political background of
neo-Confucianism in the Yuan dynasty. The second essay analyzes how
neo-Confucian orthodoxy was established and fortified. The final essay traces the intellectual
history of neo-Confucian orthodoxy in Tokugawa Japan. This book is probably of
interest only to scholars of intellectual history.
Liu,
Shu-hsien 劉述先. Understanding
Confucian Philosophy: Classical and Sung Ming. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998.
This book provides a general introduction to Confucianism, and Part II
deals specifically with Neo-Confucianism. The analysis is accessible but
traditional.
Makeham,
John, ed. Dao Companion to Neo-Confucian
Philosophy (Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy). Dordrecht Heidelberg
London New York: Springer, 2010.
This collection
contains comprehensive essays that devote to the following Neo-Confucians: Zhou
Dunyi, Shao Yong, Zhang Zai, Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, Hu Hong, Zhang Shi, Zhu Xi,
Lu Zuqian, Chen Chun, Lu Xiangshan, Wang Yangming,
Liu Zongzhou, Wang Fuzhi, Li Guangdi
and Dai Zhen. Each chapter provides solid introduction to the philosopher
covered. Individual chapters will not be mentioned separately in the following
bibliography.
SONG-MING
NEO-CONFUCIANISM
Major
Neo-Confucians in the Song-Ming period include Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073), Shao
Yong (1011-1077), Zhang Zai (1020-1077), the Cheng brothers – Cheng Hao (1032-1085)
and Cheng Yi (1033-1107), Lu Xiangshan (1139-1193), Zhu Xi (1130-1200), Wang
Yangming (1472-1529), and Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692). Other than what is selected
in Chans Source Book (Chan 1963,
cited under *General Overviews*), there are scanty translations of
Neo-Confucian works in English. The translations are of Zhu Xi (Chan 1967,
Gardner 2003, Gardner 1990), Lu Xiangshan (Ivanhoe 2009) and Wang Yangming
(Ivanhoe 2009, Henke 2012), but they are mere selections and far from complete
in presenting the huge corpus of Neo-Confucian works. Huang 1999 lists the first eight major
philosophers and leaves out Wang Fuzhi, whose copious work and sophisticated
philosophical views were not appreciated until of late. Chen 2005, written in
Chinese, is a representative work of Chen Lai陳來,
a leading expert on the intellectual history of Neo-Confucianism in China today.
Angle 2009 focuses on the ethical
teachings of two key neo-Confucians
– Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming, and Keenan 2011 focuses on one key ethical
theme: self-cultivation. Among
philosophical papers on general themes in neo-Confucianism, Peterson 1986 is an
early work that has some impact in the West while Tang 1971 represents a
well-received Chinese perspective. More
recent works such as Liu 2005 takes on neo-Confucian metaphysics with the
analytic approach, and Behuniak Jr. 2009 gives the important concept Li 理a revolutionary
analysis inspired by Platos day analogy in the Parmenides.
Angle, Stephen C. Sagehood: The Contemporary
Significance of Neo-Confucian Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 2009.
This book focuses primarily on two neo-Confucians – Zhu Xi and Wang
Yangming. It analyzes the notion of sagehood as handled by these two
philosophers and explicates their moral psychology, virtue ethics and their
views on education. It renders the ethical teachings of Neo-Confucianism more
engaging for contemporary readers.
Behuniak Jr., James. Li
In East Asian Buddhism: One Approach from Plato's Parmenides. Asian
Philosophy 19 (1):31 – 49. 2009.
How to analyze the concept of Li (translated
as principle, order, coherence, pattern, etc.) has always been a challenging
task for scholars on neo-Confucianism, and in this paper, the author offers an
innovative interpretation using Platos analogy of day as the interpretative tool. It is a refreshing piece even if
readers do not accept this interpretation.
Chen,
Lai 陳來. Songming Lixue 宋明理學.
Shanghai: East China Normal University Press, 2005. 2nd edition.
This Chinese book is
the renowned Chinese scholar Chen Lais introduction to Song-Ming
Neo-Confucianism. The analysis is of the more traditional style, focusing on conceptual
analysis and historical lineage.
Huang,
Siu-chi黃秀璣. Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song
and Ming Periods. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999.
This is a somewhat
dated book in that the analysis is more traditional, but the explications of
the eight philosophers selected here are useful as introductory pieces.
Keenan,
Barry. Neo-Confucian Self-Cultivation.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2011.
This small book focuses
on the theme of self-cultivation in the
Great Learning treated by the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi. It also provides
the background in the intellectual history of Neo-Confucianism.
Liu, JeeLoo. The Status of Cosmic Principle (Li) in Neo-Confucian Metaphysics.
Journal of Chinese Philosophy 32, No. 3 (2005): 391-407.
This article takes a
comparative approach from contemporary analytic metaphysics. It uses the notion
supervenience to analyze the
different views presented by Zhu Xi and Zhang Zai.
Peterson,
Willard 1986. Another Look at Li. The Bulletin of Sung and Yuan
Studies 18:13-32.
This work argues that the Neo-Confucian concept
of li, standardly translated as
principle, should be rendered as coherence. Even though the work is now
hard to find, its influence can be seen in more recent works on
Neo-Confucianism, such as Angle 2009 (cited under *Chinese Neo-Confucianism*).
Tang, Chun-I 唐君毅. The Spirit and Development of Neo-Confucianism. Inquiry 14 (1-4): 56 – 83. 1971.
This paper by a renowned New-Confucian Tang Junyi (唐君毅 1909-1978), originally written in Chinese. It can be used as a quick introduction
to issues in neo-Confucianism.
Zhou Dunyi
Zhou Dunyi (Chou Tun-I 周敦頤, 1017-1073) is standardly regarded as
the originator of Neo-Confucianism, but his thought stirred up much controversy
in the history of Chinese philosophy. Many philosophers and scholars accused
him as being a closet Daoist, in that his short treatise on the Taiji Diagram
seems to be a clone of a Daoist Taiji diagram and his allusion to the Boundless (wuji 無極) has often taken to be
in reference to nonbeing (wu無)
in Daoist philosophy. There are hundreds of debates and articles written in
Chinese on this diagram, both from the perspective of intellectual history and
from the angle of philosophical analysis. In English, Wang 2005 gives a good
summary of the controversy and offers a credible explanation of this particular
diagram, while Gu 2003 takes
the issue to a broader context to reconstruct the diagram as a mega-sign in
Chinese philosophy.
Gu,
Ming Dong.
The Taiji Diagram: A Meta-sign in Chinese Thought. Journal of Chinese
Philosophy 30 (2):195–218. 2003.
This paper takes a Peircean approach (separating the signifier and the
signified) to reconstruct the Taiji Diagram as a sign of representation, and
further reconstruct the Chinese sign system of Taiji and Dao. It is a
rich paper that can help Western readers understand why Zhous brief analysis
of the Diagram matters so much in the history of Chinese philosophy.
Wang,
Robin. Zhou Dunyis Diagram of the
Supreme Ultimate Explained (taijitu shuo): A
construction of the Confucian metaphysics. Journal
of the History of Ideas 66, No. 3 (2005): 307-23.
This work deals with
the various interpretations of Zhou Dunyis Diagram
of the Supreme Ultimate Explained (taijitu shuo). It
is a good introduction to the historical controversy surrounding Zhous usage
of the term wuji, as it carries a
Daoist connotation.
Shao Yong
Shao
Yong (Shao Yung 邵雍, 1011-1077) stood out
among Neo-Confucians for his in-depth knowledge of mathematics and his
sophisticated study on iconography and numerology. Using symbols and numbers derived from the
Yijing, Shao tried to categorize the
whole cosmos, including humans worldly affairs, into a structured system. His studies on the Yijing may have sparked the intense interests in the Yijing among early Neo-Confucians. However, Shao Yongs thought is so
abstract and sophisticated that even his contemporary philosopher remarked that
it would take twenty years to understand it. As a result, Shao Yong was marginalized
in later developments of Neo-Confucianism, and he remains an enigma in Chinese
philosophy to this day. His most
important work, the Huangji Jingshi (皇極經世,
Book of Supreme World Ordering Principles), is a massive volume
investigating the origination of the cosmos on the basis of an A Priori Diagram (xiantian tu 先天圖)
that he designed. It is an essential work on Chinese cosmogony, but due to its
complexity and the esoteric numerology, few contemporary scholars have done
studies on this book. Fortunately,
we have Birdwhistell 1989 that takes on an ambitious task in explicating Shaos
metaphysical ideas. Wyatt 1996 is a philosophical biography of Shao Yong,
aiming to reconstruct Shaos life with the limited information we have of him
from his contemporary and his writings. Since there is so little written in
English on Shao Yong, both these works are recommended here as they present
different aspects of Shaos philosophy.
Birdwhistell,
Anne D. Transition to Neo-Confucianism: Shao Yung on Knowledge and Symbols
of Reality. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. 1989.
This book aims to
unlock the mystery of Shao Yongs system of symbolic representation of reality.
It begins with Shao Yongs historical and philosophical contexts, and moves on
to reconstruct Shao Yongs thought as an explanatory structure of the operation
of the universe. It is an
accessible introduction to an otherwise obtuse philosophy.
Wyatt, Don J. The Recluse of Loyang - Shao Yung and the Moral Evolution of Early Sung
Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1996.
This
book may unlock some of the mysteries surrounding Shao Yong the
philosopher. It sets Shao in his
historical context, and recounts his family background, his relationships with
friendly associates and political enemies. It gives a partial introduction to
Shaos moral philosophy, and challenges Birdwhistell 1989s negligent treatment
of Shaos moral philosophy.
Zhang Zai
Zhang
Zai (Chang Tsai張載, 1020-1077) played an
instrumental role in establishing qi
philosophy in neo-Confucianism. His theory of qi differs from previous Daoist conceptions of qi in three key aspects: qi
exists from time immemorial, qi was
always in polarity from the beginning and qi
is ordered with its internal pattern, which he calls Li (理). Nowadays, Chinese intellectual
historians group Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism into three camps, with Zhang
leading the camp of qi ontology. His thoughts greatly influenced later qi-philosophers, the most notable of
whom is Wang Fuzhi. The two
philosophers are often studied together as in Liu 2011 and Liu 2012 (cited
under Wang Fuzhi). Kasoff 1984 is the only
book-length treatment of Zhang Zais philosophy. Contemporary scholars focus on
his theory of qi, which has been
commonly named qi monism or
substance monism, though the designation of monism is highly
controversial. A recent work Kim
2011 challenges such an understanding.
Kasoff, Ira E. The Thought of Chang Tsai (1020-1077).
Cambridge University Press, 1984.
This is the only book
on Zhang Zais philosophy in English. It places Zhang Zai in his historical
context and explicates his many philosophical ideas, highlighting sagehood and
his view on human nature. It provides a nice introduction to Zhang Zais
philosophy.
Kim,
Jung-Yeup. A Revisionist Understanding of Zhang
Zai's Development of Qi in the Context of his Critique of the Buddhist. Asian
Philosophy 20 (2):111-126. 2011.
This article criticizes
the prevalent denomination of Zhang Zais metaphysics as a form of substance
dualism. It provides an alternative perspective with persuasive argumentation.
Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi
Cheng
Hao (Cheng Mingdao程顥,
1032-1085) and Cheng Yi (Cheng Yichuan程頤,
1033-1107), commonly known as the Two Chengs, in that their
sayings, writings, anecdotes are compiled together as the Collected Works of the Two Chengs (Ercheng Ji 二程集). Some
of the remarks in this collection are simply referred to as Master Cheng says
without indicating which of the two brothers said it. As a result, their view(s) are often
jointly presented as the Two Chengs view, such as in Graham 1992 and Huang
2003. Nevertheless, many
contemporary Chinese scholars such
as Chen 2005 (cited under Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism) have convincingly argued
that Cheng Haos ideas paved the
ground for the later Lu-Wang school that stresses the role of the heart/mind (xin 心),
while Cheng Yis view, under Zhu Xis elaboration, established the school of Li (lixue 理學). What is usually called the Cheng-Zhu
School typically refers to the followers of Cheng Yis
and Zhu Xis teachings. The Cheng
brothers major contributions to neo-Confucianism include Cheng Yis conception
of Li (理),
Cheng Haos singling out humaneness (ren
仁) as the primary virtue, and the two
Chengs theories of human nature.
These ideas were later further developed by Zhu Xi into a more
systematic philosophy. Other than
the brief selections in Chan 1963, there is no English translation of their
works. Of secondary materials, Graham 1958/1992 is an early work of this known sinologist, and it offers a comprehensive but accessible
introduction to the two brothers views. Of late, Yong Huang has done extensive
writings on the two brothers, such as Huang 2008 and Huang 2003. He has a book on the Cheng brothers
forthcoming.
Graham, A. C. Two
Chinese Philosophers: The Metaphysics of the Brothers Cheng. La Salle, IL: Open Court. 1992.
Grahams work on the
Cheng brothers opened the door of Neo-Confucianism to scholars on Chinese
philosophy in English. Originally published in 1958, this small book analyzes
key concepts in both Cheng Haos and Cheng Yis philosophy. Even though this book was written in the
1950s, it is still a valuable study on the Cheng brothers.
Huang,
Yong. "WHY BE MORAL? The Cheng Brothers' Neo-Confucian Answer. Journal of Religious Ethics 36 (2): 321-353.
2008.
This paper deals with
the issue of moral motivation, and offers a sophisticated and contemporary
analysis on Cheng brothers moral psychology. It is an important paper for anyone
interested in the comparative analytic study on Neo-Confucianism.
Huang,
Yong. Cheng Brothers Neo-Confucian Virtue Ethics: The Identity of Virtue and
Nature. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 30, No. 3-4: 451-467. 2003.
Huangs works on the
Cheng brothers virtue ethics are among the first to take the comparative
approach to establish Neo-Confucian virtue ethics. This paper also examines the
issue of fact and value to address Humes concern about deriving ought from is.
This paper is not a textual interpretation of the philosophy in its historical
context, but an innovative reconstruction of the Cheng brothers view to
address a contemporary philosophical issue.
Lu Xiangshan
Lu
Xiangshan (Lu Hsiang-Shan 陸象山;
Lu Jiuyuan陸九淵,
1139-1193) is most famous for his philosophical disagreement with Zhu Xi, which
led to the formation of the school of the heart/mind (xingxue 心學) founded by Wang Yangming. Lu and his brother met up with Zhu Xi at
the Goose Lake and later exchanged numerous letters, which became more and more
heated. This exchange later became
known as the Goose Lake Meeting (erhuzhihui 鵝湖之會).
Their philosophical disagreement centered on their different methodology
of becoming a sage. Lu criticized
Zhu Xi for overemphasizing the investigation of all sorts of things, and
claimed that such pursuit of external knowledge is too trivial and fragmented
to truly benefit the learner.
Instead, as he argues, one should focus on ones own mind to seek true
wisdom in dealing with worldly affairs. Zhu Xi, on the other hand, thought that
Lus teaching is too simplified and too idle. Lus famous slogan is The Universe is
my mind; my mind is the Universe.
His teaching greatly influenced Wang Yangming, who later advocated the
learning of the heart/mind, which became a dominant view in late Ming
dynasty. There is fortunately a
good reader on both Lu Xiangshans and Wang Yangmings writings, Ivanhoe 2009,
which gives a fair representation of the two philosophers comments and
writings. Ching 1974 and Huang 1987
provide good historical background and philosophical analysis of the famed
Goose Lake Debate. Huang 1944 is
still the only monograph written in English on Lus philosophy.
Ivanhoe,
Philip J. Readings from the Lu-Wang School of Neo-Confucianism.
Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2009.
This book gives
reliable and elegant translations of selected works by Lu Xiangshan and Wang
Yangming. Ivanhoe is a seasoned
scholar on Chinese philosophy, and his translation reflects a deep
philosophical understanding of the two philosophers views, as well as a
comprehensive knowledge of the tradition of Chinese philosophy.
Ching,
Julia. The Goose Lake Monastery Debate (1175). Journal of Chinese
Philosophy 1, No. 2: 161-178. 1974.
This
paper gives a historical reconstruction of the Goose Lake debate, and cast the
focus of Lu and Zhus debate over the primacy of learning or wisdom. The
details of the Goose Lake Debate are well known to Chinese scholars, but for
those who are not familiar with the history, this paper serves as a reliable
guide to the debate.
Huang,
Chin-Hsing. Chu Hsi versus Lu Hsiang-Shan: A Philosophical Interpretation. Journal
of Chinese Philosophy 14, No. 2: 179-208. 1987.
This
paper offers a new interpretation of the nature of the debate, and argues that
the central disagreement between Zhu Xi and Lu Xiangshan is not on their
methodology, but in their respective ontological presupposition of the nature
of mind. This interpretation,
though contrary to the traditional view, is quite convincing and it offers a
new understanding of the key issues in Neo-Confucianism.
Huang,
Siu-chi黃秀璣. Lu Hsiang-Shan: A Twelfth Century Chinese Idealist Philosopher. New
Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. 1944. Reprinted in 2010 by Kessinger
Publishing, LLC.
This is the only
book-length monograph devoted to Lu Xiangshan. Written by the author of Essentials of Neo-Confucianism (Huang
1999, cited under Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism), this little book (less than one
hundred pages) places Lu in his intellectual historical context and explains
his cosmology in comparison to that of Zhu
Xi. It can be used as a beginners
guide to Lu Xiangshan.
Zhu Xi
Zhu
Xi (Chu Hsi 朱熹, 1130-1200)
was the most influential Confucian since Confucius and Mencius, both because of
his systematic philosophy and his political clout. Zhu Xi is standardly
considered the synthesizer of Song Neo-Confucianism, and he was instrumental
in establishing Confucian classics as the official documents for civic exams. His
commentary and interpretation of the Confucian classics became the officially
sanctioned orthodoxy. Zhu Xi is
regarded as the founder of the school of principle (lixue 理學), as his main thesis is that nature is
identical with principle. By
nature, Zhu Xi means the essential traits of each particular thing. He advocated the Investigation of things
(gewu 格物),
which to him means studying the principle within each material object and daily
affair. Zhu Xi believes that one
needs to investigate as many things as possible in order to extend the knowledge
of Heavenly Principle. He also
redefines Taiji as principle, and treats it as the origin of the Universe as
well as the ontological foundation of all things. In addition, Zhu Xi also
developed a sophisticated virtue ethics and moral epistemology. Zhu Xis
philosophy is preserved in his numerous commentaries on ancient Confucian texts
and his extensive discourses with students and correspondences with associates.
In Chinese, his essays and correspondences, etc. have been compiled into a
ten-book set of Collected Writings of Zhu
Xi (Zhuzi wenji 朱子文集), and his discourses with students were
recorded by numerous students and compiled into (several editions of) The Recorded Sayings of Zhu Xi (Zhuji yulu朱子語錄).
The current popular version of his recorded sayings is a set of
one-hundred-forty volumes Categorized
Recorded Sayings of Zhu Xi (Zhuzi yulei 朱子語類). Since this collection includes Zhu Xis
explanations of his ideas in the Q&A
with students, and the content is organized thematically, it is the most
valuable primary source for Zhu Xi scholars. The complete electronic text of this
collection is available at **Zhongguo zhexueshu dianzihua jihua 中國哲學書電子化計劃** http://ctext.org/zhuzi-yulei/zh). Unfortunately, most of his works and
discourses have not been translated into English. Of primary sources in English, we have
Chan 1967, Gardner 2003, Gardner 1990, etc., which translates a tiny portion of
Zhu Xis copious work and remarks. There are many secondary sources in English,
as among all neo-Confucians, Zhu Xi receives the most attention from
contemporary scholars working in English. Chan 1989 and Chan 1986 represent
earlier scholars researches on Zhu Xi, which are more or less from the
intellectual historical approach. Kim 2000 is a well-researched book on Zhu
Xis epistemology and his attitude toward natural science. Angle 2009 ((cited under Song-Ming
Neo-Confucianism) is a monograph devoted to Zhu Xis and Wang Yangmings moral
philosophy. The book has received high praises from scholars in the field.
Chan,
Wing-tsit. Trans. Reflections on Things
at Hand (compiled by Zhu Xi).
New York: Columbia University Press, 1967.
This work is a
translation of Zhu Xis Reflections on
Things at Hand (Jinsilu 近思錄), which is a compilation of important sayings of early
Sung Neo-Confucians.
Gardner,
Daniel. Zhu Xi's Reading of the Analects:
Canon, Commentary and the Classical Tradition (Asian Studies). New York:
Columbia University Press, 2003.
This is a translation
of Zhu Xis commentary on the Analects,
which is more than just a textual commentary but is imbued with Zhus
philosophical insights.
Gardner,
Daniel. Learning to Be A Sage: Selections
from the Conversations of Master Chu, Arranged Topically. CA: University of
California Press, 1990.
This book provides
selected translation of Zhus recorded sayings.
Chan,
Wing-tsit. Zhu Xi: New Studies. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1989.
Wing-tsit Chan, editor
of A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Chan
1963), is also an expert and a staunch defender of Zhu Xi. This book represents Chans lifelong
studies of Zhu Xi, with more than thirty papers treating various aspects of
Zhus life, philosophy and associations. It should be book of interest to Zhu
Xi scholars.
Chan, Wing-tsit (Ed.) Chu
Hsi and Neo-Confucianism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1986.
This book consists of
more than thirty papers on Zhu Xi written by known scholars on
Neo-Confucianism. The basis of this anthology is a conference on Zhu Xi held in
Honolulu in 1982. Paper topics
mostly reflect studies on Zhu Xi in his historical contexts. There are,
however, several papers on Zhu Xis theory of principle and the Great Ultimate
(Taiji). They will be of interest to
scholars who want to learn about Zhu Xis metaphysics.
Kim,
Yunk Sik. The Natural Philosophy of Chu
Hsi (1130-1200). Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2000.
This is a scholarly and
yet accessible work on Zhu Xis theory of knowledge, his worldview and his attitude
toward science. It provides a helpful guidance to Zhu Xis philosophy.
Wang Yangming
Wang
Yangming (王陽明; Wang Shouren王守仁, 1472-1529) closely followed Lu Xiangshans direction in
paying closer attention to the internal investigation of the mind. They both advocate the view that mind
is principle. In the history of
Chinese philosophy, the two philosophers are often called the Lu-Wang School,
and the debate between the Lu-Wang School and the Cheng-Zhu School was the dominant theme in Neo-Confucianism. Of primary sources, Chan 1963, Henke
2012 and Ching 1976 are three older translations of Wangs writings, and
Ivanhoe 2009 (cited under Lu Xiangshan) is a more contemporary translation with
valuable notations. In addition to providing translation of Wangs essays and
poems, Ching 1976 remains an indispensable introduction to Wangs overall
philosophy. There are five main
theses in Wangs philosophy: (1) Mind is principle; (2) We all have an innate
knowledge/perception of the good, which he calls Liangzhi (良知);
(3) We need to rectify things (gewu 格物),
which according to Wangs interpretation means to get rid of evil and to return
to our innate good sense; (4) the unity of knowledge and action; and (5)
Humanity (ren) begins with family
love. Of these themes, contemporary
scholars focus more on (2) and (4). Cua 1982 is a classic analysis on thesis
(4) while Frisina 2002 gives this thesis a more
contemporary approach to reinterpret this thesis of the unity of knowledge and
action. Ivanhoe 2011 gives an innovative
analysis of Wangs theory of Liangzhi,
rendered as pure knowledge or moral perception. Tien 2004 is a sophisticated comparative
study on Wang Yangming and Tien 2012 provides a reconstruction of Wang
Yangmings moral psychology. All three articles situate Wangs thought in the
contemporary philosophical context.
Chan, Wing-tsit (Trans.) Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writing. New York: Columbia
University Press. 1963.
This book provides a
reliable and accessible translation of Wangs major work, Instructions for Practical Living (chuanxilu傳習錄), and his philosophical correspondences.
Henke,
Frederick Goodrich. The
Philosophy of Wang Yang-Ming Translated from the Chinese (Classic Reprint).
Forgotten Books, 2012.
This is a reprint of an
old translation from 1916, published by Open Court. The collection contains
Wangs essential works (Instructions for
Practical Life, Record of Discourses and
Inquiry regarding the Great Learning)
and many of his scholarly letters.
Ivanhoe,
Philip J. Readings from the Lu-Wang School of Neo-Confucianism. Indianapolis,
IN: Hackett, 2009.
This book includes translations
of Wang Yangmings Questions on the Great
Learning (daxue wen 大學問) and A Record for
Practice (chuanxilu 傳習錄), as well as additional selections from Wangs
philosophical correspondence and his poetry. The helpful notations, along with the
elegant translation and representative selections of the text, make this book an
authoritative edition of Lu-Wangs works in English.
Ching, Julia秦家懿.
To Acquire Wisdom: The Way of Wang Yangming. New York:
Columbia University Press. 1976.
This is the first
systematic work on Wang Yangming in English, written by the late Dr. Ching, a well respected expert on neo-Confucianism. Part I of this
book contains Chings detailed analysis of Wangs philosophy; Part II includes
her selected translations of Wangs essays and poems. Anyone working on Wang
Yangming should begin with this book.
Cua, Antonio S. Unity
of Knowledge and Action: A Study in Wang Yang-Mings Moral Psychology.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1982.
This book gives a comprehensive analysis of Wangs key thesis of the
unity of knowledge and action in the context of his philosophy of mind and
theory of action. In many ways, Cuas analysis of Wang paved the ground for new
directions in the study of Chinese moral philosophy.
Frisina, Warren G. The Unity of
Knowledge and Action. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. 2002.
This book takes an innovative approach to the understanding of Wang
Yangmings major thesis of the unity of knowledge and action. Though the
interpretation might not strike traditional scholars as true to Wang Yangming,
the philosophical potential of Wangs view is greatly enhanced by this
approach.
Ivanhoe,
Philip J. McDowell, Wang Yangming, and Mengzi's Contributions to Understanding
Moral Perception. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 10 (3): 273-290.
2011.
This paper takes a
contemporary perspective and comparative analysis to reconstruct Wang
Yangmings view of moral perception. It opens new topics for the study of
Confucian moral psychology.
Tien,
David W. Warranted Neo-Confucian
Belief: Religious Pluralism and the Affections in the Epistemologies of Wang Yangming
(1472–1529) and Alvin Plantinga. International
Journal for Philosophy of Religion 55 (1): 31-55. 2004.
This paper is a
constructive comparative study on Wang Yangming and Alvin Plantinga. Building
on a contemporary reconstruction of Wangs epistemology, the paper argues that
Wangs theory can constitute a defeater for the rationality of Christian belief
on Plantinga's theory of warrant. The paper is nicely written and provides
a new approach for the study of Wang Yangmings philosophy.
Tien,
David W. Oneness and Self-Centeredness in the Moral Psychology of Wang Yangming.
Journal of Religious Ethics 40 (1): 52-71.
2012.
This paper reconstructs Wang Yangmings moral psychology with regard to
private desires. It emphasizes a conceptual distinction between selfishness and
self-centeredness, and argues that personal desires should be characterized as
self-centered rather than selfish. It is a clear paper with convincing
argumentation.
Wang Fuzhi
Wang Fuzhi (Wang
Fu-chih王夫之, 1619-1692) was one of the
most (if not the most) prolific philosophy
writers in the history of Chinese philosophy, and his contributions to the
reinvention of Confucianism could not be enumerated. Wang thought that Neo-Confucianism
developed to his times has greatly distorted the essence of classical
Confucianism, and vowed to spend his mature life to rediscovering and
reinvigorating the ideas in the classics themselves. By writing massive commentary on the
classics, Wangs own philosophy emerged as a new form of qi-naturalism derived from the Yijing,
as well as a new form of moral psychology informed by Mencius conviction in
the goodness of human nature. Even
though there are many books and articles on Wang Fuzhi in Chinese, due to the
absence of English translation of Wangs copious works, there is virtually little
research on his philosophy in English. Fortunately, we have Black 1989 that provides
a comprehensive introduction to Wangs metaphysics, his epistemology and his
moral philosophy. Among current
scholars writing in English, JeeLoo Liu has done the most work on Wang Fuzhi,
reconstructing his philosophy of history, his metaphysics and his moral
psychology. Liu 2001 is an early work on Wangs philosophy of history, Liu 2011
reconstructs Zhang Zai and Wang Fuzhis view on qi into qi-realism, and Liu
2012 takes Wangs moral psychology to defend a form of social sentimentalism.
Black,
Alison Harley. Man and Nature in the
Philosophical Thought of Wang Fuzhi. Seattle, WA: University of Washington
Press. 1989.
This is the first
systematic study of Wang Fuzhis philosophy in English. This book is well
written and provides a good introduction to Wangs philosophy.
Liu,
JeeLoo. Is Human History Predestined in Wang Fuzhi's Cosmology? Journal of
Chinese Philosophy 28 (3):321–338. 2001.
This paper examines the
issue of determinism in Wang Fuzhis philosophy of history. It takes the
analytic approach to defend humans ability to manipulate states of affairs
under the historical pattern of chaos and prosperity.
Liu,
JeeLoo. The Is-Ought Correlation in Neo-Confucian Qi-Realism. Contemporary
Chinese Thought 43 (1): 60-77. 2011.
This paper tackles the issue
of fact and value in neo-Confucian qi-philosophy
championed by Zhang Zai, Luo Qinshun (羅欽順
1465-1547), Wang Tingxiang (王廷相1474-1544)
and Wang Fuzhi. It is not a
historical survey but an analytic reconstruction of this qi philosophy into qi-realism.
Liu,
JeeLoo. Moral Reason, Moral Sentiments and the Realization of Altruism: A
Motivational Theory of Altruism. Asian
Philosophy 22, No. 2 (2012): 93-119.
This paper engages in a
comparative study on Thomas Nagel, Zhang Zai and Wang Fuzhi in terms of their
views on altruism or humaneness. It further suggests a social sentimentalist
proposal, inspired by Wang Fuzhis view, for developing altruism in
contemporary society.
QING NEO-CONFUCIANISM
Neo-Confucianism
in the Qing dynasty (1636-1911) was reactionary against the development of
Neo-Confucianism in Song Ming dynasties, and it aimed to return to the
classics. The scholarly interests of the time were primarily on the
philological analysis of classical Confucian texts, and hence the works are
often not philosophically engaging. There were some exceptions, however, such
as in the works of Yan Yuan (顏元1635-1704), Dai Zhen (戴震1724-1777) and Zhang Xuecheng
(章學誠1738-1801). In the
English world, more attention has been paid to the philosophical thought of
*Dai Zhen*.
Dai Zhen
Among Qing
Neo-Confucians, Dai Zhen (Tai Chen戴震, 1724-1777) receives the most attention in the West for his revolutionary thought
against orthodox Neo-Confucianism in the Cheng-Zhu tradition. Dai has a more realistic attitude toward
human desires and does not view them as obstacles to moral cultivation as some
Neo-Confucians did before him. Cheng 1971 and Chin 1990 are some translations of Dai Zhens work. To see how Dais view transformed neo-Confucianism, one could consult
Lee 1991. Contemporary research, such as Tiwald 2011 and Ewell
1991, focus more on Dai Zhens theory of human nature and the foundation for
morality, in an effort to reconstruct his moral psychology. Tiwalds recent discussion on
Dai Zhens moral psychology is especially noteworthy.
Cheng,
Chung-ying. Tai Chns Inquiry into Goodness. Honolulu:
East-West Center Press. 1971.
This book is a
translation of Dai Zhens Inquiry into
Goodness (Yuan Shan 原善). It is an essential work for
reconstructing Dai Zhens moral psychology.
Chin,
Ann-ping, and Freeman, Mansfield. Tai Chen on Mencius: Explorations in
Words and Meanings. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.
This books
is a translation of Dai Zhens work Mencius: Explorations in Words and
Meanings (Mengzi ziyi
shuzheng 孟子字義疏證). Since Mencius
theory of the goodness of human nature was the basis of Dais own philosophy,
Ewell, John. Dai Zhen: The Unity of the Moral
Nature. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 18, No. 4 (1991): 387-394.
This work presents Dai
Zhens unique moral psychology. It is one of the earliest works on Dai Zhen.
Lee,
Jig-Chuen. How Tai Chen differs from the
Neo-Confucianists on Li. Journal
of Chinese Philosophy 18m No. 4 (1991): 395-409.
This work highlights
Dai Zhens revolutionary view on the notion of li. For scholars interested in the development of Neo-Confucianism
past the Song-Ming era, this is a good paper to read.
Tiwald,
Justin. Dai Zhens Defense of Self-interest. Journal of Chinese Philosophy
38s: 29-45. 2011.
Tiwald has done
extensive and philosophically engaging studies on Dai Zhen. This is a
representative of his many works on Dai Zhens moral psychology, his notion of
desire and his ethical theory.
CONTEMPORARY NEW CONFUCIANISM (20TH CENTURY)
Contemporary
New Confucianism refers to the Chinese philosophers active in the twentieth
century. These philosophers were exposed to Western philosophy to varying
degrees, and they had the ambition of reconstructing Chinese philosophy, in
particular, Confucianism, with the new vocabulary and ideas from Western
philosophy. The major philosophers in this group include Xiong Shili (熊十力1885-1968), Liang
Shuming (梁漱溟1893-1988), Feng Youlan (馮友蘭1895-1990),
Fang Dongmei, also known as Thom
H. Fang (方東美1899-1977), Tang Junyi (唐君毅1909-1978), and Mou
Zongsan (牟宗三1909-1995). Currently,
there are still many followers of Tang and Mou in Taiwan and in Hong Kong. The
system philosophy of Mou Zongsan is particularly worth noting. For scholars on
contemporary New Confucianism, Mou
Zongsans philosophical impact is indisputable. Many scholars in Taiwan are greatly
influenced by Mous take on Neo-Confucianism, and his fusion of (his take on)
Kant and Chinese philosophy has created a new direction in the developments of
Chinese philosophy past the twentieth century. Major works by Mou
include Mous three-volume set of Xinti yu Xingti心體與性體 (a
thematic philosophical analysis of Neo-Confucianism), Caixing yu Xuanli才性與玄理
(a detailed analysis of Neo-Daoism in Wei-Jin
dynasties), and Foxing yu Boluo佛性與般若
(a philosophical analysis of different Buddhist
philosophy). Tang Junyis
major works includes Daode Ziwo zhi Jianli 道德自我之建立,
which presents Tangs own moral philosophy. It examines the foundation of moral
life and the possibility of being moral. The individual is placed in the
context of the world in the pursuit of the fulfillment of a moral self. This
teaching had a great impact on Chinese intellectuals. His Zhongguo
Zhexue Yuanlun 中國哲學原論 gives the history of
the development of key concepts in Chinese philosophy such as conceptions of
human nature and of Dao. It also
includes detailed analysis of the development of Neo-Confucianism. Probably because of the immense sizes
and colossal topics of these books, so far there are no English translations of
the above works. Among secondary materials in English, Makeham 2003 is a
collection of essays on various New Confucians, while Liu 2003 gives a general
introduction to New Confucianism. Of late, there are a number of English
book-length works devoted to various aspects of Mou Zongsans philosophy, such
as Clower 2010 and Angle 2012.
Angle, Stephen C. Contemporary Confucian Political Philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2012.
This book develops Mou Zongsans political philosophy
in the contemporary context. It also briefly introduces current philosophical
developments in China and in Taiwan.
Clower, Jason. The
Unlikely Buddhologist: Tiantai Buddhism in Mou
Zongsan's New Confucianism (Modern Chinese Philosophy). Brill Academic Pub.
2010.
This book examines how
Mou Zongsan incorporated ideas from Tiantai Buddhism into his own philosophical
system. It provides a sophisticated analysis of both Tiantai philosophy and
Mous philosophy.
Liu,
Shu-hsien. Essentials of
Contemporary Neo-Confucian Philosophy. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.
This book introduces
contemporary New Confucianism in its intellectual historical background. It
devotes one chapter each to the following Confucians in the twentieth century:
Feng Youlan, Xiong Shili, Fang
Dongmei, Tang Junyi and Mou Zongsan. It also gives a brief
introduction to some currently active New Confucians. It can serve as a beginners guide to new
Confucianism.
Makeham,
John, ed. New
Confucianism: A Critical Examination. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
This
book contains eight essays on general themes of New Confucianism and analysis
of the philosophy of a few key New Confucians such as Liang Shuming, Feng
Youlan, Mou Zongsan and Xiong
Shili. These essays, written by
known scholars, paved the ground for further investigation of New Confucianism.